時間：2022-04-13 21:53:32
序論：速發表網結合其深厚的文秘經驗，特別為您篩選了11篇英文畢業論文范文。如果您需要更多原創資料，歡迎隨時與我們的客服老師聯系，希望您能從中汲取靈感和知識！
Acknowledgements
英文摘要在科技論文中具有重要作用，根據EiCompendex數據庫對英文摘要的要求，從時態、語態等方面提出了英文摘要的寫作規則，列舉了論文中存在的常見問題，并提出了一些建議。下面是學術參考網小編為您搜集整理的畢業論文致謝詞英文，歡迎閱讀！
Acknowledgements
MydeepestgratitudegoesfirstandforemosttoProfessoraaa，mysupervisor，forherconstantencouragementandguidance.Shehaswalkedmethroughallthestagesofthewritingofthisthesis.Withoutherconsistentandilluminatinginstruction，thisthesiscouldnothavereacheditspresentform.
Second，IwouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetoProfessoraaa，wholedmeintotheworldoftranslation.IamalsogreatlyindebtedtotheprofessorsandteachersattheDepartmentofEnglish：Professordddd，Professorssss，whohaveinstructedandhelpedmealotinthepasttwoyears.
Lastmythankswouldgotomybelovedfamilyfo
1.0 前言
近15年，體裁（genre）和體裁分析（genre analysis）成為第一語言和第二語言教學領域里的熱門話題（Hyon 1996）。我國不少專家、學者都試圖把這種理論應用在具有特定交際目的的篇章上，如分析農業英語論文摘要（易興霞，2006），分析應用語言學領域學術文章的宏觀和微觀結構（楊瑞英，2006）英語專業畢業論文，分析商務促銷類語篇（王宏俐, 郭繼榮，2006）等。本文擬從Bhatia的英文促銷信的體裁分析模式入手，分析主要交際目的為說服潛在客戶購買商家所提供的產品或接受其服務的英文促銷信的表現形式，圖式結構和特殊信息，并通過分析語義的文化預設和搭配意義，加深對促銷信的語言表面特征的認識。
2.0理論依據
2.1體裁
語言學中的體裁（genre）不同于文學中的體裁。Swales (1990: 45-58) 認為體裁是在特定社會文化背景下對人類交際事件進行分類的結果。所謂交際事件就是人們按照特定目的和特定程式運用語言在社會中辦事的實例。新加坡的Bhatia (1993:13-16)在 Swales的體裁理論基礎上做了進一步的完善, 認為:1)體裁是一種可辨認的交際事件;2)體裁不是一般的交際事件 ,而是一種內部結構特征鮮明,高度約定俗成的交際事件;3)在建構語篇時 ,必須遵循某種特定體裁所要求的慣例;4)盡管體裁有其慣例和制約性, 內行人仍可在體裁規定內傳達個人意圖和交際目的。因此交際目的往往決定應該使用哪種體裁，而體裁的常規性又維我們提供了可以遵循的體裁結構潛勢。
2.2體裁分析
體裁分析是20 世紀90 年代由Swales (1990)和Bhatia (1993)發展起來的一種分析方法。他們認為任何體裁都是由一系列的語輪構成，語步(move)和步驟( step)是語篇分析的出發點。Swales的層次動向法（move approach）常用在具體的體裁分析中，即根據不同的交際目的，對某一語篇按照意義與功能劃出層次，然后再根據層次來考察分析語言的表達形式。Swales 沒有對語步和步驟提出明確的定義,但Nwogu (1997)認為語步是一個由一系列詞匯,主題意義和修辭特征所標明的具有統一意義傾向的語篇片斷，步驟是實現語步的可供選擇的修辭策略，一個語步可以由一個或多個步驟來實現。例如英語專業畢業論文，Bhatia (1993:62)根據體裁“ 語步 (moves) 和步驟( steps)”分析理論，將推銷體裁概括成七個 “語步” (move) :1. Establishing credentials (確立資格證明) ; 2. Introducing the offer (介紹推銷內容)：⑴offering the product orservice (介紹產品或服務) ,⑵ Essential detailing of the offer (介紹推銷內容的重要細節) , ⑶Indicating value of the offer (指明推銷內容的價值) ; 3. Offering incentives (激勵購買) ; 4.Enclosing documents (附寄文件) ; 5. Soliciting response(請求回復) ; 6. Using pressure tactics (采用壓力策略) ; 7. Ending politely (禮貌收尾)。在以上七個“語步” 中 ,第二語步 Introducing the offer 又是由三個步驟(step)組成的。
體裁分析模式為語篇研究提供了新的考察視角與方式。使用體裁和體裁分析理論對某個特定語篇進行分析，是對語篇宏觀結構和微觀結構分析的有機結合，既注重語篇結構的宏觀結構和認知結構，也注重特定的體裁結構在詞匯和語法層面的特定表現。
3.0體裁分析在英文促銷信中的應用
3.1促銷信的體裁界定
促銷信是商務英語中常見的一種語篇，它是以書信的格式由促銷人員向顧客傳遞商品或服務的存在及其性能、特征等信息，幫助顧客認識商品或服務所帶來的利益，從而達到引起顧客的注意和興趣、喚起需求、采取購買行為的目的。因此它的本質是銷售者和消費者之間的信息溝通，主要交際目的就是通過向消費者的宣傳、誘導和提示，促進消費者產生購買動機，影響消費者的購買行為，實現產品由生產領域向消費領域的轉移。這樣的交際目的決定收信人和寫信人通常為并不熟悉的雙方，因此語言上謙虛有禮、簡潔明晰是必不可少的。
3.2 促銷信的內在宏觀結構
一封成功的促銷信在內在結構上 ,基本遵循Bhatia 的七個 “語步”的模式 ,通過吸引客戶的注意、向客戶詳細介紹所推銷的產品或服務并索求回復等語篇片斷來實現說服潛在客戶購買所推銷產品或服務的交際目的。下面我們從Bhatia的英文促銷信的體裁分析模式入手英語專業畢業論文，來具體討論促銷信的層次動向。。
Dear customer,
⑴Theunion bakers would like to announce a great offer this Valentine day. Every two kg cakeyou buy you get raffle ticket which allows you to enter into a draw which willgive you a chance to win a dinner for two at a three star hotel. You can have awonderful dinner with your loved one on the eve of Valentine’s Day.
⑵ Thebakers will arrange for the pickup and drop to the venue and you can enjoy thedinner along with the dance party at the three star hotels.
⑶Don’tyou think it will be fun to take your girlfriend or boyfriend out for dinner ona valentine’s day and make the day a special one? Imagine all that fun you havewith your loved one with tasty cuisine and exciting and thrilling dance party.To top it all you can meet famous singer and dancer who is the guest of honorthat day.
⑷Visitany of our outlets to get more information. Hurry and buy a wonderful tastycake for your loved one.
⑸Sincethe offer is valid till (time how long).please act now.
⑹Sincerely,
這封促銷信由五段組成，第一段的第一句是第一個語步: Establishing credentials (確立資格證明),通過提及在情人節要提供的一項服務來吸引顧客的注意力；第一段的第二句到第三段是第二個語步：Introducing the offer (介紹推銷內容)。第二個語步由三個步驟組成：⑴offering the product or service (介紹產品或服務) ,⑵ Essentialdetailing of the offer (介紹推銷內容的重要細節) , ⑶Indicating value of the offer (指明推銷內容的價值) 。第一段的第二句是第一個步驟，主要介紹了即將推出的服務——每買兩公斤蛋糕就能抽簽，就有機會贏得在三星級賓館的兩人晚宴；第一段的第三句和第二段是第二個步驟，詳細介紹推銷服務的細節——情人節前夕在三星級賓館和摯愛共進晚餐、共舞；第三段是第三個步驟，主要指出推銷服務的精神價值——使情人節過得特別，并能遇到明星。第二個語步是促銷信最為重要的部分，決定能否幫助顧客認識商品或服務所帶來的利益，從而達到引起顧客的注意和興趣、喚起需求、最終采取購買行為的目的。第四段是第三、四個語步：Offering incentives (激勵購買)和Soliciting response(請求回復)。第四段第一句是請求顧客做出回復——到銷售點尋求更多信息；第二句是鼓勵有購買傾向的顧客下定決心。第五段是第五個語步：Using pressure tactics (采用壓力策略)，Sincerely和簽名是第六個語步：Ending politely (禮貌收尾)，作為傳統信件獨特的結尾方式，這一語步在促銷信中也很常見。
與Bhatia的七個語步模式略有不同的是：這封促銷信并沒有Enclosing documents (附寄文件)這一語步；而且Offeringincentives (激勵購 買)和Soliciting response(請求回復)的順序也有所不同。王宏俐, 郭繼榮(2006)認為，在語篇構建中常使用的語步是核心語步英語專業畢業論文，不太出現的輔語步是外圍語步，在促銷信中，第一、二、四語步是核心語步，由于Enclosing documents (附寄文件)這一語步是外圍語步，銷售者可根據情況決定是否使用；至于語步順序，盡管促銷信是專門用途英語里的一種，有其慣例和制約性，但我們仍可在體裁規定內傳達個人意圖和交際目的。
3.3 促銷信的文化預設和搭配意義
這實際是一封是以西方文化為背景的抽獎促銷信。促銷信的最主要部分——第二語步也是以這個文化預設為先決條件的。銷售者想要促銷的商品是蛋糕，但在促銷信里，抽獎有可能贏得情人節的晚餐卻是描述的重點，這主要是商家抓住了顧客消費過程中的僥幸獲大利心理——以抽獎贏得與摯愛在情人節共進免費晚餐的機會，設置中獎機會，利用抽獎的形式英語專業畢業論文，來吸引消費者購買商品蛋糕。令人心動的抽獎活動成功地把顧客的注意力指向拉到了本應大力宣傳的產品——蛋糕上面。如果收信人不了解這個文化預設，就不容易達到促銷信的交際目的。
Leech（1981:17）認為：搭配意義是指一個詞與另一個詞連用搭配時使得該詞的意義隨語境而發生的變化。因此促銷信在詞的搭配上非常注意。促銷信使用的形容詞大多是描述性和評價性的，多為褒義詞，例如：great, wonderful, special, tasty, exciting, thrilling, famous,wonderful, 這些形容詞為收信人勾勒出一幅浪漫、激情、美味的晚餐情景。盡管這是一封書信，但口語詞匯多余書面語詞匯，淺顯易懂、簡潔明晰。銷售者為了推銷商品或者服務，常常直接使用反問疑問句和祈使句，增強引導功能，說服或敦促收信人采取購買行動。
3.4 總結
體裁分析超越了對語篇語言特征的簡單描述,力求解釋語篇的理據, 探討語篇結構背后的社會文化因素和心理認知因素, 揭示實現交際背景的特殊方式和語篇結構的規范性。促銷信具是專門用途英語的一種，把促銷信這一體裁語篇看作是一個有規律的有結構的層次動向的組合的思想, 有助于我們更好地理解這種信函體裁，寫出目的明確、結構清晰、用詞準確的促銷信。
參考文獻：
1.Hyon, Sunny. Genre in Three Traditions:Implications for ESL [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 30/ 4 :693-722, 1996.
2.易興霞.體裁分析與農業英語論文摘要[J]. 西安外國語學院學報，2006(9):28-31.
3.楊瑞英.體裁分析的應用：應用語言學學術文章結構分析[J]. 外語與外語教學，2006(10):29-34.
4.王宏俐,郭繼榮.體裁分析與商務促銷類語篇[J]. 外語教學，2006(7): 32-37.
5.Swales, J. M. Genre Analysis: English inAcademic and Research Settings [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
6.Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Usein Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993.
7.Nwogu, K. N. The Medical Research Paper: Structureand Function [J]. English for Specific Purposes, 199 16 (2): 119-138.
2.1The history of British English 3
2.2 The history of American English 4
3. Grammar differences between British English and American English 6
3.1 Lexical differences 6
3.1.1The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms 7
3.1.2 Differences in verb 7
3.1.2.1 Differences in the inflectional endings of verbs 7
3.1.2.2Different use of present perfect tenses 8
3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs 8
3.1.2.4 Different use of "have" 9
3.1.3 Different use of function words 9
3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb 9
3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb 10
3.1.3.3 Differences in articles 11
3.2 Syntactical differences 12
3.2.1 Differences in compound object 12
3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements 13
3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood 13
4. The differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English 14
5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English 17
6. Conclusion 17
Acknowledgements 19
References 19
1．Introduction
There is one play in the famous American TV series Friends: Ross will go to England to marry Emily, suddenly Rachel decides to show his love to Ross and goes to England either, so his friend Phoebe makes a call to tell the news to Ross and Emily, Emily’s housekeeper answers the call. The dialogue as follows:
Housekeeper: The Waltham Residence.
Phoebe: Oh...yes…is this…umm…Emily’s Parents’ house?
Housekeeper: This is the housekeeper speaking. And by the way, young lady, that is not how one addresses oneself on the telephone. First one identifies oneself and then asks for the person with whom one wishes to speak.
Phoebe: (In a British accent)This is Phoebe Buffay. I was wondering, please, if-if it’s not too much trouble, please, umm，might I speak to Miss Emily Waltham, please?
Housekeeper: Miss Waltham is at the rehearsal dinner and it’s not polite to make fun of people. Goodbye.
Phoebe: No,no,no, I’ll be nice, I swear!!! Could you just give me the number for where they are?
Housekeeper: I’m afraid, I’m not at liberty to divulge that information.
Phoebe: Ok, somebody is on their way to ruin wedding okay. And I have to warn somebody, alright. So if you don’t give me that number then I’m going to come over there and kick your snooty ass all the way to New Glocken...shire.
Housekeeper: Hangs up[1]
We can see from the above dialogue that British English is more serious and formal than American English. The American speaks at will while the Englishmen speak gently. As we all know the two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. There seems to be little differences between the two varieties but the influences are very different. On some occasion we may have some mistakes in communication, in order to help the English speakers and learners understand the two varieties better and to eliminate troubles that may prevent communication and English writing, so I will make analysis on the grammar differences between British English and American English.
2. British English and American English
Nowadays English has developed into a global language. The fact that such a large number of people all around the world speak English means that there are many dialects and varieties. The two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. As a message carrier, English fully reflects the unique culture possessed by the British and American countries. Since in Dissertations on the English Language, Noah Webster pointed out “several circumstances render a feature separation of the American tongue from the English necessary and unavoidable.”
2.1 The History of British English
English is a West Germanic language which originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree, though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word, as mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication.
Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility, resulting in an enormous and varied vocabulary. It mainly divided into four periods.
（1）Proto-English （the 5th century AD）[2]
The languages of Germanic tribes gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), who traded and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the centuries-long process of the Germanic peoples' expansion into Western Europe. Many Latin words for common objects entered the vocabulary of these Germanic peoples before any of their tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, fork, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street and wall. The Romans also gave the English language words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, chest, devil, dish, sack and wine.
（2）Old English（AD 450—1100）[2]
The invaders' Germanic language replaced the indigenous Brythonic languages. （form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family, the other being Goidelic）The original Celtic languages remained in parts of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings （is one of the Norse (Scandinavian) explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the late eighth to the early eleventh century.）who invaded and settled mainly in the north-east of England. The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many words. The Germanic language of these Old English-speaking inhabitants was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including the loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf" composed by an unknown poet; it is thought to have been substantially modified, probably by Christian clerics long after its composition.
（3）Middle English（AD 1066-1470）[2]
For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only one of the langues d'oïl called Anglo-Norman, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion, most of the Normans outside the royal court spoke English, with French remaining the prestige language of government and law, largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is the very unusual construction of the words for animals being separated from the words for their food products e.g. beef and pork (from the French bœuf and porc) being the products of the Germanically named animals 'cow' and 'pig'.
（4）Modern English（1500 up to the present）[2]
Modern English can be divided into two parts: early modern english(1500-1800)and late modern English. Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardized London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardizing effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century), the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English.
English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared). As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country.
In 1755, Samuel Johnson published the first significan t English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.
2.2 The history of American English
During the 17th century, or more precisely on May 14, 1607, the first English settlers landed in Virginia. This was a group of 104 London entrepreneurs and they established the first English colony in Jamestown. Later on, in 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers, settlers from England, landed in Massachusetts, and also brought the English language over the Atlantic Ocean to America and another variety of English was born, American English. This variety is the largest of all the English varieties, since as many as 70% of the native English speakers live in the US. American English has preserved a number of words and features from the English spoken in England at the time of the settlement, which have now been changed in British English.
The history of American English can be divided into the colonial (1607-1776), the national (1776-1898), and the international (1898-present) periods. During nearly four hundred years of use in North America, the English language changed in small ways in pronunciation and grammar but extensively in vocabulary and in the attitude of its speakers. English settlements along the Atlantic Coast during the seventeenth century provided the foundation for English as a permanent language in the New World. But the English of the American colonies was bound to become distinct from that of the motherland. When people do not talk with one another, they begin to talk differently. The Atlantic Ocean served as an effective barrier to oral communication between the colonists and those who stayed in England, ensuring that their speech would evolve in different directions.[3]
Americans also came cheek-to-jowl with "Amerindians" of several linguistic stocks, as well as French and Dutch speakers. They had to talk in new ways to communicate with their new neighbors. Moreover, the settlers had come from various districts and social groups of England, so there was a homogenizing effect: those in a given colony came to talk more like one another and less like any particular community in England. All these influences combined to make American English a distinct variety of the language. In the United States, there are also regional differences, and these are ultimately descendants of a mixture of accents spoken in the British Isles at the time of the settlement of America. Dialect boundaries in the US tend to run from east to west. The first immigrants settled along the Atlantic coast and they spread from east to west across the continent and took some dialect forms, for example words and pronunciation features, with them. The dialect areas in North America are much larger than they are in England, mainly because English has been spoken in England for about 1,500 years, but in America for only approximately 300 years. Because of America’s recent settlement, there has not been enough time for linguistic changes and this is why there are not so many dialect differences in this large country.
3. Grammar differences between British English and American English
English grammar is the set of rules within the English language itself. "An English grammar"(one kind of grammar system)is a specific study or analysis of these rules. In linguistics, grammar refers to the logical and structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes lexicology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. I mainly make analysis on the lexical and syntactical differences between British English and American English.
3.1 Lexical Differences
Lexicology is that part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words’ elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon. Lexical differences mean relating to the words’ differences of a language.
3.1.1 The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms
Collective nouns such as “team, faculty, family, government” often take plural verb agreement and plural pronoun substitution in Britain English, but they nearly always take singular agreement and singular pronoun substitution in American English. There is a tendency in Britain English, to stress the individuality of the members, which is reflected in plural verb agreement and pronoun substitution, whereas American English Strongly tends to stress the unitary function of the group, which is reflected in singular verb and pronoun forms.[4] 6
Some examples:
Your team is doing well this year, isn’t it? (AmE)
Your team are doing well this year, aren’t they? (BrE)
3.1.2 Differences in Verb
In syntax, a verb is a word (part of speech) that usually denotes an action (bring, read), an occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being (exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments (subject, object).
3.1.2.1 Differences in the Inflectional Endings of Verbs
The past tense and past participle of the verbs are different in BrE and AmE.
The past tense and past participle of the verbs learn, spoil, spell, burn, dream, smell, spill, leap, and others, can be either irregular (learnt, spoilt, etc.) or regular (learned, spoiled, etc.). In BrE, the irregular and regular forms are current; in some cases (smelt, leapt) there is a strong tendency towards the irregular forms (especially by speakers using Received Pronunciation); in other cases (dreamed, leaned, learned) the regular forms are somewhat more common. In AmE, the irregular forms are never or rarely used (except for burnt and leapt).
Nonetheless, as with other usages considered nowadays to be typically British, the t endings are often found in older American texts. However, usage may vary when the past participles are actually adjectives, as in burnt toast.( Note that the two-syllable form learned ['lə:nid] usually written simply as learnt, is still used as an adjective to mean "educated", or to refer to academic institutions, in both BrE and AmE.)Finally, the past tense and past participle of dwell and kneel are more commonly dwelt and knelt on both sides of the Atlantic, although dwelled and kneeled are widely used in the US (but not in the UK).
In British English, the past tense of “get’’ is “got”, while American English usually use its past participle “gotten”.
For example,
A. John has got much better during the last week. (BrE)
B. John has gotten much better during the last week. (AmE)
According to the custom that British English usually uses “got” while American English “gotten”, we can quickly tell the nationality of the speaker. The former is British and the later is American. When Americans use “got”, they mean “own, possess and dominate”, such as the following two examples:
They’ve got no pride.
I’ve got plenty of material if I can just handle it.
3.1.2.2 Different use of present perfect tenses
Traditionally, BrE uses the present perfect tense to talk about an event in the recent past(express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment) and with the words already, just, and yet. For example:
British English:[5]
I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film
Have you finished your homework yet?
American English:[5]
I just had lunch or I've just had lunch.
I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
Have your finished your homework yet? Or did you finish your homework yet?
In American usage, these meanings can be expressed with the present perfect (to express a fact) or the simple past (to imply an expectation). This American style has become widespread only in the past 20 to 30 years; the British style is still in common use as well. In British English the present perfect is used to.
"I've just arrived home." / "I just arrived home."
"I've already eaten." / "I already ate." [6]
Recently, the American use of just with simple past has made inroads into BrE, most visibly in advertising slogans and headlines such as "Cable broadband just got faster".
Similarly, AmE occasionally replaces the pluperfect with the preterite. Also, US spoken usage sometimes, especially with the contracted forms, substitutes the conditional for the pluperfect (If I would have cooked the pie we could have had it for lunch), but this tends to be avoided in writing.[6]
3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs
The following verbs show differences in transitivity between BrE and AmE.[6]
agree: transitive or intransitive in BrE, usually intransitive in AmE (agree a contract/agree to or on a contract). However, in formal AmE legal writing one often sees constructions like as may be agreed between the parties (rather than as may be agreed upon between the parties).
appeal(as a decision): usually intransitive in BrE (used with against) and transitive in AmE (appeal against the decision to the Court/appeal the decision to the Court).
cater("to provide food and service"): intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (to cater for a banquet/to cater a banquet).
claim: sometimes intransitive in BrE (used with for), strictly transitive in AmE.
protest: in the sense of "oppose", intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (The workers protested against the decision/The workers protested the decision). The intransitive protest against in AmE means, "to hold or participate in a demonstration against". The older sense "proclaim" is always transitive (protest one's innocence).
write: in BrE, the indirect object of this verb usually requires the preposition to, for example, I'll write to my MP or I'll write to her (although it is not required in some situations, for example when an indirect object pronoun comes before a direct object noun, for example, I'll write her a letter). In AmE, write can be used monotransitively (I'll write my congressman; I'll write him).
3.1.2.4 Different use of “have”.
British English usually uses “Have you any children?” or “Have you got any
children?” while Americans commonly express the same meaning with “Do you have any children?”Let us see some other examples.
How many brothers do you have? (AmE)
How many brothers have you? (BrE)
You don’t have much room here. (AmE)
You haven’t (got) much room here. (BrE)
3.1.3 Different use of function words
Function words (or grammatical words) are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Words that are not function words are called content words (or lexical words): these include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs, although some adverbs are function words (e.g., then and why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words, but can only describe the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail, but treat lexical words in general terms only. Now I will compare the different use of function words in BrE and AE in detail as follows.
3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb
Differences between British and American English in prepositions are shown in the following two aspects: (1) different use of prepositions in the construction of phrases; (2) when using phrases, one will use a preposition while the other will omit it.
(1)Let us first review the different use of prepositions.
Your daughter’s name stands first in the list. (BrE)
Your daughter’s name stands first on the list. (AmE)
These dresses are in a sale. (BrE)
These dresses are on sale. (AmE)
He will come here at a quarter to three. (BrE, AmE)
He will come here at a quarter before /of / till three. (AmE)
She lives just round the corner (BrE).[7]4
She lives just around the corner (AmE).
Similarly, “five past nine” can be expressed in American English by “five after nine” or “nine five”. In front of “weekend” and “Christmas”, British English uses “at” or “over”, while American English adopts “over” or “on”.
At the weekend / Christmas (BrE)
Over the weekend / Christmas (BrE, AmE)
On the weekend / Christmas (AmE)
(2) Omitting preposition[8]2
In British English, before “day”, “week” or “certain day”, preposition “on” shall be used, while it is not so in American English.
The new term begins on September 1. (BrE)
The new term begins September 1. (AmE)
I’ll see you on Monday. (BrE)
I’ll see you Monday. (AmE)
In American English, when “home” is used as an adverb, the preposition “at” is not needed. But, in British English, “at” is required before “home”. Hence, “at home” is used in British English.
Is he home? (AmE)
Is he at home? (BrE)
3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb
In linguistics, an auxiliary is a verb functioning to give further semantic or syntactic information about the main or full verb following it. There are three types: Modal auxiliaries，have and go.
No matter in the frequency or the tendency of auxiliary verb, AmE differs from BrE. Their differences are stated as follows:.
(1)shall
Shall in BrE, is widely used in the fist person to raise questions, answer questions ,or to express future, while in AmE it is only used in the law file or informal style paper. In formal style paper, people usually use will or should. Such as:
Br.E:1)I shall tell you later.
Am.E:1)I will tell you later.
2)Shall I drink this now?
2)Should I drink this now?
(2)would[9]2
Would has two special usages in AmE, firstly it can show the usual action in the past. such as: When I was small, I would go there everyday.
However in BrE, the past tense or used to can express the past uaual action, therefore in BrE the above sentence should be changed into: When I was small, I went there everyday. Or When I was wmall, I used to go there everyday.
Secondly, would in AmE can express hypothesis in some informal language, quite like a kind of subjunctive mood, however in BrE not.
Try to compare:
Am.E:1)I wish I would have done it.
2)If I would have seen one, I would have bought it for you.
Br.E(it also the same with AmE):1)I wish I had done it.
2)If I had seen one, I would have bought it for you.
In Br.E, “would” and “will” can express suppose, while in Am.E the auxiliary verb “should” and “must” express supposition. Try to compare:
Br.E:1)That will be the postman at the door.
2)That would be zhongshan Road over there.
Am.E: 1)That must be (should be)the mailman at the door.
2)That should be(must be)Zhongshan Rood over there.
(3)used to
“Used to” in AmE is not seen as Modal auxiliary, but seen as notional word. To the opposite, in Br.E, used to is just seen as modal auxiliary, can offer or deny questions, also can be used as notional word but people use “do” to offer or deny questions. For example:
1)He used to go there.(notional verb)
Did he use to go there.(notional verb)
2)Used he to go there.(auxiliary verb)
He used not to go there.(auxiliary verb)
(4)ought to[9]6
“Ought to” is widely used in BrE to raise or deny questions, but in AmE use “should” to substitute for it, such as:
Br.E:1)Ought we to eat lunch?
Am.E:1)Should we eat lunch?
2)You ought not(oughtn’t) to have said that. 2)You shouldn’t have said that.
In AmE, ought to and used to are all used as notional verbs in the informal papers and such forms are said to be not standard forms. For example:
1)Did you ought to say that?
2)You didn’t ought to have said that.
(5) Different use of the indefinite pronoun “one”
In BrE we can use “one” to indicate the “one” of the former writing again while in AmE we usually use “he” or “his” to instead the “one” of the former writing. For instance:
One cannot succeed unless one works hard.(BrE)
One cannot succeed unless he works hard.(AmE)
3.1.3.3 Differences in articles[19]
(1)The omitting of articles
Most phrases of British English have articles, while those of American English do not have. The “the” in the standard expressions in British English “all the afternoon”, “all the winter”, “all the week”, “this time of the year”, ect. But the articles are usually omitted in American English. For example:
The swimming pools are open all summer.
I’ll be here all afternoon.
He has been gone all week.
British English will use articles in front of “sickness”, “river” and etc., while American English does not. For example,
British English expresses in the form of “the measles”, “the mumps”, “the flu”, “the Niagara Falls” and “the Black Creek”, while American English says “measles”, “mumps”, “flu”, “Niagara Falls” and “Black Creek”.
However, there are exceptions. In some expressions, British English does not use articles, while American English does.
BrE AmE
Go into hospital Go into the hospital
In hospital In the hospital
At university At the university
Sentences are as follows:
Next day, the rain began. (BrE)
The next day, the rain began. (AmE)
In future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (BrE)
In the future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (AmE)
(2) The position of articles
British English and American English are different from each other in the use of “a” or “an” with “half”. In British English, “a” follows “half”, for example, “half a dozen”, “half an hour”, “half a mile”, and “half a pound”. In American English, “a” is put in front of “half”, for example, “a half dozen”, “a half hour”, “a half mile” and “a half pound”.
3.2 Syntactical differences
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function. I will explain the syntactic differences as follows.
3.2.1Differences in compound object[20]
The Verb“ -to do” usually used as compound object in British English, While past participle or past participle phrase mostly used as compound object in American English. Try to compare:
1)He also had ordered his luggage to be labeled for crew.(Bronte.) (BrE)
2)Last year an American hotel manager ordered his quests evacuated after an anonymous bomb threat.(AmE)
3)I have a roll that was in dead storage during the war which I ordered put back in running order. (O' Hara) (AmE)
The two compound structures (compound object with past participle and compound object with –to do) are both used in the BrE and AmE, while the AmE use compound object more frequent ly than BrE. However, there are some differences in the routine usage of Verb related to this phrase structure. The verb “to order” usually linked with the compound structure with past participle in AmE, but linked with the compound structure with “verb -to do” in BrE.
3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements[11]
Where a statement of intention involves two separate activities, it is acceptable for speakers of AmE to use to go plus bare infinitive. Speakers of BrE would instead use to go and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say I'll go take a bath, BrE speakers would say I'll go and have a bath. (Both can also use the form to go to instead to suggest that the action may fail, as in He went to take/have a bath, but the bath was full of children.) Similarly, to come plus bare infinitive is acceptable to speakers of AmE, where speakers of BrE would instead use to come and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say come see what I bought, BrE speakers would say come and see what I've bought (notice the present perfect tense: a common British preference).
As to whether a preposition is used before days denoted by a single word, British people would say she resigned on Thursday, while Americans often say she resigned Thursday, but both forms are common in American usage. Occasionally, in AmE the preposition is also absent when referring to months: I'll be here December (although this usage is generally limited to colloquial speech).But, it will say “I’ll be here on December.” in BrE.
In the UK, from is used with single dates and times more often than in the United States. Where British speakers and writers may say the new museum will be open from Tuesday, Americans most likely say the new museum will be open starting Tuesday. (This difference does not apply to phrases of the pattern from A to B, which are used in both BrE and AmE.) A variation or alternative of this is the most American will say “the play opens Tuesday” and the most British will say “the play opens on Tuesday”. American legislators and lawyers always use the preposition of between the name of a legislative act and the year it was passed, while their British colleagues do not. We can see such differences by making comparison between Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and Disability Discrimination Act 1995.
3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood used more in AmE than in BrE, which is mainly used in the formal style paper.
In subjunctive mood, American English will rarely reserve traditional subjunctive words.
I suggest that meeting be postponed. (AmE)
I suggest that meeting should be postponed. (BrE)
I wish I had done it. (AmE)
I wish I would have done it. (BrE)
4. The grammatical differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English
Black English also called African American Vernacular English which is an African American variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of American English.There are four points in which black English differs from British English.
1)Negation
In addition, negatives are formed differently from standard American English:
Use of ain't as a general negative indicator. It can be used where Standard English would use am not, isn't, aren't, haven't and hasn't, a trait which is not specific to AAVE. However, in marked contrast to other varieties of English in the U.S., some speakers of AAVE also use ain't instead of don't, doesn't, or didn't (e.g., I ain't know that).[14] Ain't had its origins in common English, but became increasingly stigmatized since the 19th century. See also amn't.
Negative concord, popularly called "double negation", as in I didn't go nowhere; if the sentence is negative, all negatable forms are negated. This contrasts with Standard English, where a double negative is considered a positive (although this wasn't always so; see double negative). There is also "triple" or "multiple negation", as in the phrase I don't know nothing about no one no more, which would be "I don't know anything about anybody anymore" in Standard English.
In a negative construction, an indefinite pronoun such as nobody or nothing can be inverted with the negative verb particle for emphasis (eg. Don't nobody know the answer, Ain't nothin' goin' on.)
While these are features that AAVE has in common with Creole languages,[15] Howe and Walker use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English, Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that negation was inherited from nonstandard colonial English.
Some of these characteristics, notably doubl e negatives and the omission of certain auxiliaries such as the has in has been are also characteristic of general colloquial American English.
2)The omission of copula in black English
You crazy! ("You're crazy") or She my sister ("She's my sister"). The phenomenon is also observed in questions: Who you? ("Who're you?") and Where you at? ("Where are you (at)?"). On the other hand, a stressed is cannot be dropped: She is my sister.
Only the forms is and are (the latter of which, in any case, is often replaced by is) can be omitted. These forms cannot be omitted when they are pronounced with a stress (whether or not the stress serves specifically to impart an emphatic sense to the verb's meaning).
These forms cannot be omitted when the corresponding form in Standard English cannot show contraction (and vice-versa). For example, I don't know where he is cannot be reduced to (BrE) I don't know where he because in Standard English the corresponding reduction I don't know where he's is likewise impossible. (Though I don't know where he at is possible.) Possibly some other minor conditions apply as well.[16]
3)Present-tense verbs uninflected for number/person
there is no -s ending in the present-tense third-person singular. Example: She write poetry ("She writes poetry"). Similarly, was is used for what in standard English are contexts for both was and were.[17]
4)The word it or is denoting the existence of something
This usage is equivalent to Standard English there in "there is", or "there are". It is also found in the English of the US South. Examples its a doughnut in the cabinet ("There's a doughnut in the cabinet") and It ain't no spoon ("There isn't a spoon", also "They ain't no spoon").[17]
5) Altered syntax in questions
Why they ain't growin'? ("Why aren't they growing?") and Who the hell she think she is? ("Who the hell does she think she is?") lack the inversion of standard English. Because of this, there is also no need for the auxiliary DO.[18]
To put it simply, we can summarize the grammatical differences between British and American daily English as follows[19]:
(1) Sometimes, British and American English use different grammatical forms to express the same meaning;
(2) Sometimes, the same grammatical form expresses different meanings in British and American English;
(3) In some structures, either British English or American English will use integrated grammatical form, while the other adopts the omitted form;
(4) Sometimes, American and British English use the same grammatical form to express the same concept and meaning.
However, one of them may have another expression form, while the other does not. We could only avoid misunderstanding by paying attention to those differences in our study.
5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English
The English language changes as the rapid development of politics, economic, culture in Britain and American. After it goes through the three periods (old English, middle English and modern English),it also changes everyday, especially in the related ten years, the changes of English becomes more obvious. Although the English structure is not as obvious as the lexical development, it does not ignore. On the aspect of grammar, English experience the changes from the verb inflections of old English to use word in order to express meaning in the past 1500years, and English also become analytic language from synthetic language. Such experience makes English flexible, meanwhile it also broke the traditional grammar frame, the former disagreed rules transferred into acceptable English even native English. The speed on renewing lexical words is very fast.
On the whole, British English and American English fuse with each other, and they tend to be brief, clear and more flexible for use.
6．Conclusion
As the globalization and information world developed, more and more people from different countries use the same language―English to communicate and exchange ideas with each other. The above discussion about grammar difference between British English and American English is what I have found and concluded. Although there are many differences in detailed aspects in the use of daily British and American English, they are similar to each other in most of aspects. Therefore, they shall only be considered as different forms of the same language rather than two different languages. In addition, we cannot say which one is better or advanced. Any judgment or opinion that “British English is better or worse than American English” is biased. The purpose of this paper is to help English learners understand the two varieties better and eliminate some mistakes caused in communication or paper writing.
The differences between the British English and American English are caused by politics, economy, social life, culture, and geography. American English developed from British English, but it differs from British English. All in all, sinc e English is characterized by its huge vocabulary, great tolerance, and conciseness, it leaves little room for argument that English will be well on its way to be a diversified common language.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhu Min, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Mao Can、Gao YunPing and many others.
My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
References
[1] 周樂, 美式英語與英式英語比較與分析[J]. 湖南商學院外語系,2008.
[2] Wikipedia Contributors
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_English_language
[3] blog.languagetranslation.com/public/item/118655
[4] 王振明和公麗艷，英式英語與美式英語的差異[J]. 山東教育學院學報,2002.
[5] esl.about.com/od/toeflieltscambridge/a/dif_ambrit.htm
[6]en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences#Use_of_tenses
[7] 孟憲友，英語與美語的差別對比研究[J]. 廣州大學外國語學院英語系,2002.
, Jour.of N.W. SCI-TECH Uni.of Agri.and Fore,2001.
, Journal of Shijiazhuang Teachers College,2001
, Journal of Wuhu Vocational Institute of Technology,2007
[11]Wikipedia Contributors
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences
, Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Sciences), 2007
[13]張振邦,新編語法教程[M].上海,上海教育出版社,1993
, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press
[15] Winford, Donald (1992), "Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited", Language Variation and Change 4 (3): 311-357
[16] Geoff Pullum, "Why Ebonics Is No Joke" Lingua Franca transcript, 17 October 1998, Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
[17] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English#Negation
2.1 Ezra Pound 2
2.2 Imagism ………………………………………………………… …………...….. .4
3. Imagistic features of Pound's poetry 5
3.1 The use of Image 5
3.1.1 Image progress…..……………………………………………………………… ……6
3.1.2 Image superposition………………………………………………………………….. 8
3.1.3 Image juxtaposition………………………………………………………………...…9
3.2 Concise Language………………..………………….…………………………...…….10
3.3 Musical Rhythm ...……………………………………………………………………..11
4. Influence of Pound’s poetry 12
4.1 The impact on domestic literature ...…………… …………………………………… 13
4.2 The impact on foreign literature ...………….…………………………………………14
5. Conclusion 16
Acknowledgement. 17
Reference 18
1．Introduction
Imagism was a movement in the early 20th-century Anglo-American poetry that favored precision of imagery, and clear, sharp language. The Imagists rejected the sentiment and discursiveness typical of much Romantic and Victorian poetry. This was in contrast to their contemporaries, the Georgian poets, who were by and large content to work within that tradition. Ezra Weston Loomis Pound was an American expatriate poet, critic and intellectual who was a major figure of the Modernist movement in the first half of the 20th century. He is generally considered the poet most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry.11
As the father of Modernism, Ezra Pound plays an important role in Poetry modernization process. Therefore, we can get a clear understanding of imagism poems by studying Pound’s poems and translation works. The thesis will focus on studying image to analysis Ezra Pound’s poems. According to Pound's Imagist poems and other predecessors’ studies of his works, this thesis will summarize the language characteristics of Pound’s poetry and analysis his imagist poetry style, so as to provide some theoretical concept from the view of reading, understanding and appreciating modern English poetry, thus making it easier for Chinese readers to appreciate English poetry.
The first part summarizes Ezra Pound’s life and theoretical basis of Imagism. The second part, as analysis of Pound's poetry, departs into three parts—the use of image, concise language and musical rhythm. It introduces three kinds of combination of images, and uses Pound’s poems to explain the combination of images. The third part is about the influence of Pound poetry on domestic and foreign literature
2. Ezra Pound and Imagism
As the father of modernism which is the main stream of literature in the twentieth century, Ezra Pound definitely plays a predominant role in the evolution of modernist poetry. Its starting point is Imagism.
Ezra Pound’s Imagist theory is mainly based on the aesthetic theories proposed by W. B. Yeats, Ford Madox Ford and T. E. Hulme. Yeats is famous for a symbolist who emphasizes subjective conception and imaginative association，but this school tends to lapse into sentimentality; Ford is famous for an impressionist who emphasizes objective writing with clarity and precision, but this school tends to lapse into the level of description. Pound absorbs the strengths of Yeat’s subjectivity and Ford’s objectivity and finds a way to make natural objects convey subjective emotion by virtue of association of the mind.
2.1 Ezra Pound
Ezra Pound(1885一1972)was born in Hally, Idaho, in October, 1885.Then he attended Hamilton College and the University of Pennsylvania，where he majored in romance Philology while reading through a large Portion of classical and European literature. Dissatisfied with the genteel tradition and Popular romanticism dominating the American literary tastes，Pound moved to Europe in1908一first to London，then to Paris，and finally to Rapallo, Italy. In 1909，Pound met W. B. Yeats and Ford Madox Ford. He was greatly influenced by these two and tried to combine Yeat’s symbolism with Ford’s impressionism. About the same period of time, Pound got in touch with T. E. Hulme and became interested in his Poetic theory.
All these ideas became the theoretical basis of the well-known Imagist and Vortieist Movement. Later，inspired by American sinologist Ernest Fenollosa’s theory on the Chinese writing characters，Pound proposed the Ideogramic Method which was based on the chief principles of the Imagist and Vorticist Movement. As the advocate and leader of the movement Pound exerted a great influence on the Imagist poetry writers. Pound also attempted to combine poetry with music, painting and scu1pture.Vortieism was such a typical example.
Ezra Pound is generally considered the poet most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry. In the early teens of the twentieth century, he opened a seminal exchange of work and ideas between British and American writers, and was famous for the generosity with which he advanced the work of such major contemporaries as W. B. Yeats, Robert Frost, William Carlos Williams, Marianne Moore, H. D., James Joyce, Ernest Hemingway and especially T. S. Eliot. Pound also had a profound influence on Irish writers W. B. Yeats and James Joyce.
Pound is not only a poet, but also a translator, essayist and literary critic. His own significant contributions to poetry begin with his promulgation of Imagism, a movement in poetry which derived its technique from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry which are stressing clarity, precision, and economy of language, and foregoing traditional rhyme and meter in order to, in Pound's words, “compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome.” His later work, for nearly fifty years, focused on the encyclopedic epic poem he entitled The Cantos, which was regarded as poetic masterpiece of the twentieth century. He is really an original and creative poet in the twentieth century, a literary giant who plays a prominent role in the development of modernist poetry.
2.2 Imagism
Imagism was a poetic movement which flourished in London between 1910 and 1917 and had an enduring and pervasive influence on English-language poetry in the twentieth century.
The Imagists published four annual anthologies from 1914 to 1917, with a final anthology in 1930. They were led by Ezra Pound who first called them “Les Imagists”, choosing a French term to associate the group with the various French avant-garde movements which became the Roger Fry’s influential Post-Impressionist exhibition in 1910. The group included Hilda Doolittle, John Gould Fletcher, Amy Lowell, Richard Aldington, and, marginally, D. H. Lawrence, but they had only a loose and shifting affiliation and it was mainly Pound’s talents as a promoter and critic that gave a semblance of unity.
Pound’s favored spelling of Imagists was a gesture of homage to the first school of modern poets, the symbolists, whose best-known members were Baudelaire, Mallarme, Verlaine, and Rimbaud, but Pound criticized the French Symbolists as often as he praised them. The first principle of Imagism was “Direct treatment of the thing” [3]72, clearly in contrast to Mallarme’s famous dictum that to name a thing was to take away half the pleasure and whereas Verlaine in his “Art of Poetry” advised an “indefinite music”. Pound spoke for an “absolute rhythm”, a rhythm that is in poetry which corresponds exactly to the emotion or shade of emotion to be expressed.
Nonetheless, Pound’s ascorbic but well-judged criticism of his contemporaries, his accurate sense of what was good in verse, and his own aphoristic brilliance, gave this small movement (which was not really even a movement outside of Pound’s rhetoric) a formative role in defining the twentieth-century poet as someone who was in the intellectual avant-garde, purifying the language of the tribe, spurning flaccid and self-important and merely derived patterns of language use, and generally breaking with the idea of fixed metrical rules. Many of these principles were clearly articulated in the essay “Imagism” in Poetry (March 1913) which was offered as an interview-cum- report by F. S. Flint but shows the hand of Pound throughout. According to Flint, the three principles of Imagism were:
“1. Direct treatment of the “thing”, whether subjective or objective.
2. To use absolutely no word that did not contribute to the presentation.
3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome. ” [4]12
In an essay “A Few Don’ts by An Imagist” by Pound in the same issue offers a definition of the Image as “that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time” [5]54, the key point being the compression of intellectual and emotional experience into an instant. He goes on to offer his own set of “Don’ts”:
“Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something.
Don’t use such an expression as “dim land of peace”. It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol.
Go in fear of abstractions. Don’t retell in mediocre verse what has already been done in good prose. Don’t think any intelligent person is going to be deceived when you try to shirk all the difficulties of the unspeakably cliff cult art of good prose by chopping your composition into line. ” [6]31
3. Imagistic Features of Pound's Poetry
Imagist poetry has three distinctive artistic characteristics. First, the Imagist poems request to convey the complex imagery directly, use sculpture and painting in the performance of imagery. It objects to musical and mystery object to lyrics. It advances the “Do not say” and “Do not you narrative” [6]9, only to show without comment. Second, the Imagist poems use concise language, no adjectives and qualifier, no decorative “lace” and flaunting words. It writes short lines, with imagery. Third, the Imagist poetry Images focus on the intrinsic rhythm of imagery combination, blend the imagery and the contained idea.
3.1 The use of Image
The word “Image” used in the field of literature is derived from the theory of Chinese poetry. It is an important linguistic terms which have been widely used in Chinese poetry. Therefore, when people refer to “image” in literature, it also refers to “image” poetry. Poetry image is the basic constituent element of poetry. It is the soul and essence features of poetry, and it plays a vital role in poetry.
Pound’s work as poet, critic，editor，and promoter of the new style was crucial to its initial period，in the decade around the First World War，and what was most essential to his conception of what was truly modern was a single word: Image. Pound’s best poems were assured achievement in the Imagist Movement when literature in English became recognizably modern. The modern revolution in literary style came from a main impulse一focus on the image.
Aesthetic theorist and imagist poet T. E. Hulme must be credited with the initial emphasis on the image，for he first formulated the doctrine that “Images in verse are not mere decoration, but the very essence of an intuitive language.”2 It was also Pound who showed in practice how far this definition could be carried into the making of short and then longer poems. Pound emphasized the concentration of intellectual and emotional content possible in a poetic image, though it mirrored only a brief moment of experience. He took the image to be the poet’s “primary pigment” and stressed the hardness, or concreteness, of sensory language, telling poets to “Go in fear of abstractions”. Besides concreteness, Pound stressed exactness of diction, the mot just of Flaubert, and clarity, and “As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome”. Thus, along with the image emerged free verse, newly understood as an appropriate organic rhythm, suited to the mood of the individual poem.
In short, Pound’s Imagism was intended to carry symbolism forward towards a greater poetic realism, keeping the poet’s vision always in touch with the world of his senses, holding firmly to the principle that truth should be visible in things, rather than in visible beyond them.
As we all know ancient Chinese poetry and Japanese haiku had an important influence on Pound, especially the ancient Chinese poetry. Pound didn’t just pay attention to the ‘exotic surface’ of the Chinese language but its linguistic nature and the abstract feelings that lie behind it. He not only translated lots of Chinese poems but also learned the useful and particular writing techniques. It can be seen clearly the imitation of the style of Chinese poetry from Pound’ poems.
In the following text I will focus on three types of combination of image--image progress, image superposition and image juxtaposition. These three modes of combination of image are very typical East or Chinese-style image, which is characterized by only using nouns rather than verbs. This image processing techniques in ancient poetry in China is nothing unusual or surprising. And they are also wildly used in Pound’s poetry and become his representative features.
3.1.1 Image Progress
Image progress is a combination of images which structured in accordance with the objective rule. It is a common writing technique used by ancient Chinese poets. For example, the famous Chinese poetry《敕勒歌》：
“敕勒川，陰山下，天似穹廬，籠蓋四野。
天蒼蒼、野茫茫，風吹草低見牛羊。”
In this poem, the author wrote from the mountains to near grass, from the sky to earth. He ranged the images under the rule of direction--from far to near. Therefore the author could make the meaning of this poem very clear.
Ezra Pound successfully used Image progress writing technique in his poems. Take Pound’s poem “Salutation” for example:
O generation of the thoroughly smug
and thoroughly uncomfortable,
I have seen fishermen picnicking in the sun,
I have seen them with untidy families,
I have seen their smiles full of teeth
and heard ungainly laughter.
And I am happier than you are,
And they were happier than I am;
And the fish swim in the lake
and do not even own clothing.
-----by Ezra Pound “Salutation”
In this poem, Pound first wrote the happy “fishermen”. They eat in the wild, sleep on the ground, with the untidy families, but they laugh to their hearts’ contact. Then he compared “I” with “you”, finding that “I am happier than you”. He compared the “fishermen” with “I”, finding that “they were happier than I am”. At last he described the free “fish”, it swims freely in the lake and even wears nothing. Pound wrote four aspects: the “fishermen”, “I”, “you” and the “fish”. He made a structured comparison of each of the four aspects to challenge those self-appointed writers, and pointed out that the modern poets’ mind should be free roaming like the fish in the water. They should get rid of the old stereotypes of poetry and create poems freely.
Ezra Pound addresses the old-time question of happiness in privileged and underprivileged classes. The “generation of thoroughly smug” refers to middle and upper classes of society who, by conventional means, are uptight, dull, and “smug”, and in Pound's definition are “thoroughly uncomfortable”, with life. Pound parallels the “thoroughly smug” with the “fishermen”. The poem is about perseverance. “Fishermen” are poor, often uneducated, country folk. Pound parallels “fishermen” with struggling poets; both sects trying to survive by their individual means.
3.1.2 Image superposition
Image superposition is to superimpose images with the same meaning, and uses modify, qualifier, metaphor to constitute the relationship between images. Ezra Pound widely used this writing technique. The example is the poem “A Girl” which Pound wrote for his early lover:
The tree has entered my hands,
The sap has ascended my arms,
The tree has grown in my breast -
Downward,
The branches grow out of me, like arms.
Tree you are,
Moss you are,
You are violets with wind above them.
A child - so high - you are,
And all this is folly to the world.
------by Ezra Pound “A Girl”
In this poem, Pound first uses the image “tree” to superimpose and modify “I”, and then uses the image “moss” and “violet” to superposition and modify “tree”. It is clear that the image of the “tree” is a symbol of love and young girl. Pound first described the close relationship between “tree” and “I”. Then he added three images –”moss”, “violet” and “child” to praise the beauty of young girl. The girl is as young and beautiful as violet and moss. And she is also like green trees which full of life. All of these things moisten “my” growth of life, even though they are ungrounded yawp in most people’s eyes. In this superimposed image, we can find that the beauty of the young girl likes violet, and the vital force likes the tree and mo ss.
We can see that those words or images have similar meaning, and their meanings have connected relationship. It is clearly that Pound used modify, qualifier, metaphor to constitute the relationship between images. So this poem uses typical image superposition.
3.1.3 Image juxtaposition
Image juxtaposition is quite similar to Image superposition, but actually they are different. Image juxtaposition is to appose two visible images together which from different time and space, to inspire and arouse the feelings of others. Hume said: “The imagery shows that the combination of the two visible images can be called a visual chord. Their combination gives people an image which is different from either of the two images.” The emotional feeling aroused by juxtaposition of different images has gone beyond the meanings of a particular image, but with an entirely new feel.
Pound said, “Image juxtaposition” can not allow any contact, whether it is an analogy or a synonym. The purpose of this technique is to “cut the lock of association of ideas”, so that the author can make the interaction relationship between images. The reader must take the initiative to use their imagination to explore the relationship between the two. Pound has always been emphasized on “Objective Present”. It is one of the effects of image juxtaposition, which means let the readers to understand the experience in poetry on their own, realize the “Similarity” between images, and get a sudden, new, near-epiphany of understanding.
Juxtaposition is like the Montage practice in the field of poetry. It is also the core writing technique used in Pound’s great work “The Cantos”.
Montage practice is a cinematic technique wildly used in modern film industry. It is a rapid succession of different images or shots in a movie. It composes pictures by juxtaposing or superimposing many pictures or designs. So we can regard it as the art or process of making such a single pictorial composition.
The Cantos by Ezra Pound is a long, incomplete poem in 120 sections, each of which is a canto. Most of it was written between 1915 and 1962, although much of the early work was abandoned and the early cantos, as finally published, date from 1922 onwards. It is a book-length work, widely considered to present formidable difficulties to the reader. Strong claims have been made for it as the most significant work of modernist poetry of the twentieth century. As in Pound's prose writing, the themes of economics, governance, and culture are integral to its content.
The most striking feature of the text, to a casual browser, is the inclusion of Chinese characters as well as quotations in European languages other than English. Here I cite a few lines of chapter forty-ninth of poem “Cantos” as follows:
Rain; empty river; a voyage,
Fire from frozen cloud, heavy rain in the twilight
Under the cabin roof was one lantern.
The reeds are heavy; bent;
and the bamboos speak as if weeping.
-----by Ezra Pound “Cantos”
In this poem, Pound used the melodic appearance of images to achieve an effect that common texts were not readily to gain. When we are reading these few lines, there will be subconscious images come into our mind, just as the words showed. The images change from “rain” to “empty river”, from “frozen cloud” to “heavy rain, from “the cabin roof” to “one lantern”. It is just like a rapid succession of different images or shots in a movie.
We can find that those words or images have different meaning, from different time and space, but they have connected relationship. It is clearly that Pound put those visible images together and achieved an admirable effect to inspire and arouse our feelings. This poem gets a responsive chord in the hearts of its readers.These melodic appearances of images are achieved by juxtaposing or superimposing different images. In other word, this effect is achieved by image juxtaposition or Montage practice.
3.2 Concise Language
Imagist poetry is famous for using concise language, without adjectives, qualifier, decorative “lace” and flaunting words. It writes short lines, with imagery. In the three principles of Imagism made by F. S. Flint, the second principle is “To use absolutely no word that did not contribute to the presentation.” In an essay “A Few Don’ts by An Imagist”, Ezra Pound wrote three “Don’ts” as the principle of image poetry. The first “Don’t” is “Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something.”
Pound strictly obeys these principles. Here we take the landmark work of Pound's Imagist Poetry “In a Station of the Metro” for example:
The apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.
-----by Ezra Pound “In a Station of the Metro”
This poem was first published in 1913 and is considered one of the leading poems of the Imagist tradition. Written in a Japanese haiku style, Pound’s process of deletion from thirty lines to only fourteen words typifies Imagism’s focus on economy of language, precision of imagery and experimenting with non-traditional verse forms. The poem is Pound’s written equivalent for the moment of revelation and intense emotion he felt at the Metro at La Concorde, Paris. Pound explains in his article value.
The poem is essentially a set of images that have unexpected likeness and convey the rare emotion that Pound was experiencing at that time. Arguably the heart of the poem is not the first line, nor the second, but the mental process that links the two together. “In a poem of this sort,” as Pound explained, “one is trying to record the precise instant when a thing outward and objective transforms itself, or darts into a thing inward and subjective.”[9]3 This darting takes place between the first and second lines. The pivotal semi-colon has stirred debate as to whether the first line is in fact subordinate to the second or both lines are of equal, independent importance.
Pound contrasts the factual, mundane image that he actually witnessed with a metaphor from nature and thus infuses this “apparition” with visual beauty. There is a quick transition from the statement of the first line to the second line’s vivid metaphor; this ‘super-position’ technique exemplifies the Japanese haiku style. The word “apparition” is considered crucial as it evokes a mystical and supernatural sense of imprecision which is then reinforced by the metaphor of the second line. The plosive word ‘Petals’ conjures ideas of delicate, feminine beauty which contrasts with the bleakness of the ‘wet, black bough’. What the poem signifies is questionable; many critics argue that it deliberately transcends traditional form and therefore its meaning is solely found in its technique as opposed to in its content. However when Pound had the inspiration to write this poem few of these considerations came into view. He simply wished to translate his perception of beauty in the midst of ugliness into a single, perfect image in written form.
3.3 Musical Rhythm
Ezra Pound has a strong musical rhythm in his works, which is mainly embodied in three aspects: firstly, he thinks poetry language should be musical and pays attention to the internal poetic rhythm; secondly, he successfully adopted the fugue melody of western music, and used it in his masterpiece Cantos; moreover, he uses the dapper image poems to load the richest content and emotion to reach the highest level of musical poetry -- quiet voice.
Rhythm is an important factor to form the musical aesthetics of poetry. It gives us pleasure and beauty, and it can unify the individual, coordinate difference, turn lethargy to concentrate. Therefore, the rhythm itself is very charming, and musical rhythm is usually considered to be the core of musical poetry. In the On imagism, Ezra Pound defined poetry that “poetry is the compounds or organization of musical words.”[10]6 In Pound’s view, the so-called music is just rhythm. A poem cannot be called as a poem if without rhythm. In the aspect of poetry, Pound has inherited the free verse of Whitman poems, and made a meaningful attempt. He found a new charming melody in the traditional pentameter poem, and combined the music and expressive force into free verse. The rhythm and sound changes with the emotion in poems, that is, to maintain the true feelings of the poems and gives its beautiful melody. When reading Pound's poetry, we will realize that the beauty of rhythm in his poetry not only exists in the rhythm itself, but more important is in the performance of content.
Pound also believes that poetry do not only need rhythm, but also include: (1) beautiful rhythm. A good poem has a residual sound in the listener's ear, which sounds like organ. (2) Rhythm should contain some surprising elements. That is to say the rhythm should be of innovation. (3) Rhythm should reflect a certain emotion; give reader a shock of soul.
In addition to the repeated experiments of the rhythm of poetry, Pound also innovated the structure of poetry. He changed the way of composing music into poetry skills, in order to further enhance the melody and artistic appeal of poetry. In the “Cantos”—the literary masterpiece which represent the highest achievements of Pound's poetry, Pound used “fugue” structure in the creation of many chapters. Fugue is a common music form in Western music, which includes “theme”, “response”, “counter-subject”, and with several “episodes”. Usually, fugue adopts “counterpoint” to arrange “theme& rdquo;, “response” and “counter-subject” into the music in turn, and achieve polyphonic structure. This structure can overcome the psychological feeling of dull monotonous.
4．Influence of Pound poetry
Ezra Pound is generally considered the poet who is most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry. His own significant contributions to poetry begin with his declare of Imagism, a movement in poetry which derived its technique from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry-stressing clarity, precision, and economy of language, and foregoing traditional rhyme and meter in order to, in Pound's words, “compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome.”
Pound appreciated Chinese poetry very much and learned the use of image from it. What’s more, he summarized the key techniques and formed his own imagism theory. His imagism theory, poetry writing skills and translation of Chinese poems not only influenced innumerable British and American writers, but also affected the development of Chinese modern literature.
4.1 The impact on domestic literature
Ezra Pound’s achievements in poetry field or literature field were well recognized. Though he learned a lot of writing skills from Chinese poetry, he also had an important influence on the literature development in China, especially the development of image poetry. We can say the modern Chinese poetry is greatly influenced by Imagism.
Image is an important category with key significance in Chinese poem studying and also an important numeral factor in poetry creation. Poet’s creation inspiration and experience to the life are both condensed in image. Image is the special way to manifest itself for poetry to be distinguished from other literary styles. The ancient Chinese image poetry has a long history. It is featured by clarity, precision, economy of language and combination of images. The western image poem theory was partly derived from Chinese, but later it influenced modern Chinese Poetry.
The genesis stage of Chinese modern image poetry is in 1920s. The representative poets were Hu Shi, Wen Yiduo and Li Jinfa. Hu was well known as the primary advocate for the literary revolution of the era, a movement which aimed to replace scholarly classical Chinese in writing with the vernacular spoken language, and to cultivate and stimulate new forms of literature. “The English and American poetry of image group showed multi-aspects influence on Hu Shi’s poetry point and his vernacular and New Poetry Movement.”[11]119
The whole exploration of poetry image art in1920s, looking the image art of ancient poetry as the control of modern image construction, experiences a process of modern decay and birth of new poem image, that is being intertwined with image tradition of ancient poetry (new vernacular poem in the early period), breaking away from traditional image system (represented by Guo Moruo), close examination of returning to tradition (new metrical poem group represented by Wen Yiduo) and rebel against tradition (represented by Li Jinfa).
The development period of Chinese image poetry is between 1930s and 1940s. It was the historical evolution process of modern image art from genesis，development to maturity and its regularity and phased characteristics. During this period, most school’s image poetry held the point of view with the core of dimness, harmonious theory and artistic conception. The Beijing school’s image poetry theories were including agreement theory, art and temperament and interest theory, revealing and hidden theory, inspiration theory and image connecting theory. The July school’s image theory explaining the poetry point on the center of Ai Qing’s concrete and abstract sensualist, image imagination theory and image and graphic theory and Hu Feng’s experience image theory. The Nine Leaves school’s poetry study is expanded from such aspects as poem quality theory, rational theory, artistic conception, structuralism theory, sinking theory and condensing theory etc. And it represents the basic maturity of modern image poetry theory. The representative poets were Dai Wangshu, He Qifang, Bain Zhilin, Fei Min, Ai Qing.
Up to the present, there are many Chinese scholars studying Ezra Pound’s poetry. Some of them are from the view of the relationship between Ezra Pound and Chinese poetry. Some others research from the perspective of translation to examine the translation skills the translation of Chinese poetry. The most of them use the perspective of traditional rhetorical method, and study images of poetry from perspective of the arts means and effects of literature. The study includes the role of poetic imagery, rhetorical skills, rhetorical effect and its artistic features and so on.
4.2 The impact on foreign literature
American poet, critic, and translator Ezra Pound was an extremely important influence in the shaping of 20th-century poetry. He was one of the most famous and controversial literary figures of the century. No other twentieth century literary figure engaged as much with China as Pound. T. S. Eliot described him as the “inventor of Chinese poetry”.
Though the movement of Imagism only lasted for a short period of time, it is the beginning of New Poetry Movement in the United States. Its experiment on using “image” and free verse poetry changed many American readers’ tastes, and affected the process of American modern poetry. Pound's modernist experiments of the 1910s and 1920s have served as a counterforce to the established traditions of the “American Sublime” and the Anglo-American formalism represented by T. S. Eliot and the New Criticism. Beach, Christopher wrote a complete book length critical study ABC of Influence: Ezra Pound and the Remaking of American Poetic Tradition. “ In this first full-length study of Pound's influence on American poetry after World War II, Beach argues that Pound's experimental mode created a new tradition of poetic writing in America. Often neglected by academic critics and excluded from the “canon” of American poetic writing, Charles Olson, Robert Duncan, and later members of this experimental tradition have maintained the sense of an American avant-garde in keeping with Pound's modernist experiments of the 1910s and 1920s.”[12]87
After the movement of Imagism, there is still a small number of poets, consciously or unconsciously adhered to some of the certain principles of Imagism, and expand the results of Imagism. William C. Williams’ performance is regarded as the most outstanding in this field. Under the guidance of Ezra Pound, he began his business on the road of studying Imagism. Then he combined the writing skills of Imagism with the subject matters and language style of the United States, and created a kind of “direct” Poetry. This kind of Poetry had a dramatic impact on the revolution of United States poetry during the 1950 to 1960.
T. S. Eliot and Irish writers W. B. Yeats were deepest influenced by Pound. T. S. Eliot was a poet, playwright and literary critic. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. Among his most famous writings, the Waste Land has become a touchstone of modern literature, a poetic counterpart to a novel published in the same year, James Joyce's Ulysses. Pound made detailed editorial comments and significant cuts to the manuscript. W. B. Yeats was an Irish poet and dramatist and one of the foremost figures of 20th-century literature. Under Pound’s influence Yeats learned Pound's unauthorized alterations and got know of Chinese and Japanese poetry, which affected his later works.
5．Conclusion
The above discussion of Ezra Pound’s image poetry is by no means comprehensive but it can give us a clear point of view of Pound’s writing techniques and features. He successfully combined the features of Western poetry and Eastern poetry, and invited a new poetry theory. His way of combine images, use concise language and pay attention to rhythm are good skills which we can learn and use in poetry writing. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the language characteristics of Pound’s poetry and analysis his imagist poetry style, so as to provide some theoretical ideals from the view of reading, understanding and appreciate modern English poetry, thus making it easier for Chinese readers to appreciate English poetry.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks to my supervisor Han Xiaoya, without her patient guidance and strict supervision, this paper would not have been written. Her suggestions help me a lot in the writing of this thesis. And her enlightening ideas will greatly influence studies in my academic life.
I am also very grateful to my roommates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their valuable materials and suggestions on my writing of this thesis. Their kindness cannot be overstated.
I am further indebted to other teachers who have taught me and helped me in the past four years
In addition, any errors and inadequacies in this thesis are my sole responsibility.
References
[1] PARINI, JAY, BRETT C. MILLIER. The Columbia History of American Poetry[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2005.
London: Longman, 1997.
[3] BELL, IAN F.A. Critic As scientist: The Modernist Poetic of Ezra Pound[M]. Methuen, London and New York, 1981
[4] AIMIN, CHENG. Reading American Literature，Nanjing, 1996
[5] CARPENTER, HUMPHERY. A Serious Character: The Life of Ezra Pound[M]. Houghton Miffiin Company, Boston, 1988
[6] Elder, Bruce. The Films of Stan Brakhage in the American Tradition of Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein and Charles Olson[J]. Wilfrid Laurier University Pre ss, 1998. .
.Ed. Patrick McGuinness. New York: Routledge, 2003.
[8] EZRA POUND. Poems and Translations[M].Library of America/Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 2003.
.in Ira B. Nadel (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound, 1999, Cambridge University Press
[10] 王貴明.中國古典詩歌美學與龐德現代主義詩學[J].北京理工大學學報(社會科學版)2004,(6).
二、英語專業畢業論文的改革實踐
筆者所在學院明確地把培養應用型創新型人才作為目標，其人才培養模式注重實用和實踐，注重能力和專長。莊智象在《關于國際化創新型外語人才培養的思考》［6］一文中指出:創新型外語人才應具備“良好的語言基本功、極強的專業知識結構、創新性的思維能力和分析解決問題的實際能力”。正常情況下，英語專業的畢業論文，既要考查學生對英語專業基礎知識的掌握情況，也要考查其綜合應用英語的能力。二者如何協調結合，是改進畢業論文工作的一個突破口。工科院校本科生畢業前既要完成畢業論文，又要完成畢業設計。前者注重專業知識和學術性，后者檢驗對知識的實踐應用能力，即動手能力。這種強調理論與實踐相結合的理念對英語專業畢業論文工作有很好的啟示:是否也可以將英語專業的畢業論文由單一的論文模式改為一種集社會實踐和論文于一體的畢業設計模式?本校英語系經過多方調研和考慮，最終提出從英語專業畢業論文形式入手進行改革，力求探索一種能有效地防止抄襲，且適應應用型創新型英語人才培養目標的畢業設計模式，具體情況如下:1．改傳統的畢業論文為畢業作品制作長期以來，高校英語專業本科畢業論文(設計)都是沿用《高等學校英語專業英語教學大綱》的要求:“畢業論文一般用英語撰寫，長度為3000～5000個單詞，要求文字通順、思路清晰、內容充實，有一定的獨立見解。”［7］若仔細推敲這句話，“一般”二字暗示著高校也可根據實際情況進行其他形式的調整。為緩解日益嚴重的抄襲現象，從2012屆學生開始，本系改革傳統的畢業論文為畢業作品制作，具體指學生運用自己所學的英語知識制作出有英語配音及中英文字幕的視頻節目。不同的學生按照自己的興趣選擇不同的主題，比如人文景觀、產品推介、跨文化交際等。除了制作15～30分鐘的專題視頻外，學生還需完成一份不少于3000字的中文稿。學生將此文稿譯為質量較高的英語，用于為視頻英文配音，同時視頻還配以中英文字幕。幾名學生可在拍攝、配音和剪輯上互相協助，但每個學生最終要提交一個獨立的作品和配套的中英文文稿。為了使學生掌握一定的視頻拍攝及制作的基本技能和方法，本系還特別邀請了電視臺的相關專家對學生進行32學時的培訓，講授視頻的拍攝技巧和后期如何利用專業的EDIUS軟件進行視頻編輯及字幕制作。培訓擴充了學生英語專業外的傳媒知識，使學生獲益匪淺。2．將畢業設計工作提前到學生就業前以往畢業論文從第七學期開始進行，第八學期進入到論文撰寫最緊張的階段。這時學生基本步入社會，或就業實習，或四處求職，無法集中精力進行寫作。學生離開校園導致信息資料缺乏，引發網絡抄襲，與指導老師的溝通也受到影響。為了改善這種狀態，本系要求2012屆的畢業生在第六學期即開始畢業設計的前期工作，包括畢業設計選題、開題報告撰寫與修改以及開題報告的答辯。從暑假至第七學期中旬，學生完成畢業設計文字稿初稿，在教師指導下不斷修改并最終形成定稿，繼而完成拍攝工作及后期制作。第七學期中下旬完成畢業設計答辯，學生修改后提交最終版作品。將畢業設計提前，避免了學生畢業設計時段與找工季的沖突，學生有更充分的時間尋找自己最感興趣的題目，將理論學習與實踐操作相結合。這樣不僅提高了畢業設計質量，還能增強學生學習的積極性，同時也便于教師在校內對學生進行面對面的指導。3．改革為畢業作品制作的優勢其一，視頻制作屬于原創性的作品，學生自行選擇感興趣的題目，親自為視頻配音并出鏡，有效地制止了抄襲現象的發生，且學生選題不再狹窄單一，時效性大大增強。很明顯，改革后學生畢業設計的選題比改革前更豐富更新穎。其二，相比以往多屆學生反復寫過的沒有新意的論文來說，新形式的畢業設計擁有更多的社會文化價值和實用價值。由于學生大都來自廣東，其畢業設計多圍繞廣東本土的人文景觀、企業及產品、文化傳統等進行。如“嶺南水鄉———小洲村”、“主題公園的營銷策略———歡樂谷成功之道”、“潮汕成人禮———出花園”、“西關文化的傳承和保護———西關大屋的歷史變遷”等許多作品富有濃郁的地方特色。學生亦可選取自己有求職意向的行業作為畢業設計的主題。最終每個畢業作品被單獨刻錄在光盤上，可作為學生求職簡歷的一部分，反映學生的實踐能力，在嚴峻的就業形勢下為成功應聘增添籌碼。其三，學生開動腦筋自編自導視頻作品，很大程度上培養了自己的創新意識、創新思維和創新精神。如“千年葵藝在新會”的制作者巧妙地把一位老奶奶搖著葵扇給孫女講故事的場景引入到視頻的主題———介紹廣東新會的“葵藝”發展史。其四，將中文稿翻譯成英文，在老師指導下不斷修改至最佳的過程，使學生的寫作翻譯技能和語法、詞匯等英文基本功有了顯著的提升。其五，在為視頻英文配音的過程中，學生反復練習英文稿的朗讀，并在教師幫助下糾正錯誤發音，改善了語音語調，提高了口頭表達能力。其六，通過在網上搜索畢業設計視頻的相關素材，鍛煉了學生搜集、篩選和運用資料的能力。其七，視頻拍攝和編輯軟件的學習以及后期的字幕制作等實踐大大提高了學生的學習能力和動手能力。其八，拍攝前與公司廠家或景區等多方聯系，鍛煉了學生的社會交往溝通能力。視頻由幾名同學或親友相互配合共同完成，培養了學生的團隊合作能力。4．鼓勵部分有需要的學生繼續撰寫畢業論文少數打算讀研或出國深造的學生需要通過做畢業論文為今后的學習打下良好的學術基礎，為此，改革不能搞“一刀切”，應鼓勵部分學生撰寫論文并配備優秀教師對其指導。
開題報告是作者將自己初步選定的題目之內容、思想等，以書面形式向畢業論文答辯委員會的導師和聽眾作一書面匯報和簡要說明。
寫開題報告目的：一是作者能將所選課題的內容框架、研究現狀、選題意義、重難點和創新點、文化結構、主要引征材料及參考書目作一總體思路的勾劃，作者對該選題的前因后果，來龍去脈進行有序的組合清理，為撰寫畢業論文作好充分準備。二是作者能廣泛聽取他人的寶貴意見，并在此基礎上重新理順論文思路，使其結構更趨完整，內容更趨翔實。
開題報告的基本組成部分
1、畢業論文題目
論文題目用中英文撰寫，漢語在前，英語在后。目的是限定畢業論文的大致范圍和方向，即論題。應力求簡明扼要，引人注目。一般不超過15—20字。必要時可使用副標題。
2、本選題的研究目的
以中學英語教學法方向為例，則須說明要解決英語教與學，理論與實踐等方面的哪些問題，這些問題應是在教學實踐中比較突出又難以解決的問題;或是前人從未解決的，并且能填補某一領域的空白的問題。
3、本選題在國內外同行業中的研究現狀
國內外學者對該選題曾作過哪些方面的相關研究，本課題在國內外研究中處于何等地位?是屬于未開拓的領域，還是在前人已經研究過的基礎上作深層次的研究?國內外有哪些論文、論著涉及到本選題的內容?
4、研究本選題的動機及意義
提出本選題的根據是什么?為什么提出這個選題?本選題的研究有什么意義?從理論的角度看，本選題有哪些方面的突破，其價值取向是什么?本選題與相關領域之間的關系如何?對英語教學會起什么作用?從實踐的角度看，本選題是否有助于英語教師和學生把握教與學的動向，使人們在英語教與學的過程中少走彎路，是否有利于提高英語教學質量?
5、本選題研究的主要觀點、內容、重點和難點
本選題研究有哪幾個重要觀點，其特點是什么?研究的重點在哪幾個方面?研究的難點在何處?怎樣從理論與實踐出發，對英語教學進行更深入的理論探討?如何結合英語教學實際對改進英語教學作對策思考?本選題有哪幾個新觀點?是否填補了國內外同行業研究中的空白?
6、本選題的撰寫框架
框架可用提綱形式表述，一般構成如下：
引言：提出問題、擺明觀點。
論點：分析問題與闡明自己的觀點。大致包括：問題的原因及危害性;解決問題的重要性和必要性;從理論上來論證問題的解決方法，并聯系教學實際闡述解決問題的策略與做法。另外，利用實際數據作為論據，證明方法的有效性。
結論：通過對問題的分析論證，其結果如何?對人們在英語教與學中有何指導意義?有哪些方面需要繼續研究的?它還有什么不足之處?
參考書目：參考書目一般是英文參考書在前，中文參考書在后，以字母拼音順序排列。
7、研究基礎
作者在選擇該題之前作過哪些方面的學習、研究或寫過什么文章?說明能如期完成畢業論文撰寫的理由。
8、研究方法
常見的研究方法包括：觀察、調查、描述、實驗、實證、文獻、個案研究、比較研究、經驗總結、實踐反思、測量、量化、行動研究、表列、圖示、內容分析等方法。例如：實驗的方法就是對英語教學班級進行實驗對比;調查的方法就是通過調查表、詢問、問答等形式尋找解決問題的方法。
一個課題根據具體情況可能需要一種或多種研究方法。
9、撰寫步驟及階段任務
包括：選題及開題報告初稿、正式開題報告及提綱、完成初稿、二稿、三稿、定稿等、何時論文答辯等。
開題報告中文范例
標題： 英語隱喻漢譯
(On Translating English Metaphors into Chinese)
1) 本選題國內外研究現狀
對隱喻的研究在國外已形成較為完整的體系，其中以Lakoff & Johnson (1987)的研究最具有代表性，而對于其漢譯的研究卻鳳毛麟角。國內對于隱喻的研究主要受Lakoff & Johnson理論的影響，其中以胡壯麟、朱永生為主要代表。在隱喻翻譯的研究方面，李國南(1990)，胡文仲(1994)對于英漢成語或諺語中的習用性比喻的喻體進行過比較，并探討了其翻譯的途經。在近期出版的刊物中有對隊喻翻譯研究方面的文章，其中以徐莉娜的《隱喻的翻譯》為主要代表。但其研究的范圍也只是局限于文學、修辭用語的隱喻翻譯。
2)本選題的意義、重點、難點及創新點
意義：本選題突破了歷來將隱喻的漢譯局限在詩學、修辭學、文學等范疇。由于“翻譯是跨語言、跨文化的交際活動”(陳宏薇：1996)，翻譯對各民族之間文化的傳播起著非常重要貢獻的作用。我們對日常用語中隱喻的漢譯研究應與英語語言文化背景的研究結合起來。
重點：本選題重在研究隱喻在英語日常用語中存在的普遍性、可譯性及其翻譯的方法。
難點：怎樣從文化交際的角度對日常用語中的隱喻的漢譯進行深入的理論探討。
創新點：研究英語日常用語中的隱喻的漢譯理論及其方法。
3)論文的結構及簡要說明
1. 引言
2. 英語日常用語中隱喻存在的普遍性
2.1 隱喻的定義
2.2 關于隱喻研究的常用書語
2.3 英語日常用語中的隱喻
3. 英語日常用語中隱喻的特點
3.1 日常用語中隱喻的分類
3.1.1 習用語
3.1.2 新生隱喻
3.2 英語隱喻與漢語隱喻
3.3 英語日常用語中隱喻的可譯性
4. 英語日常用語中的隱譯漢譯
4.1 翻譯的標準
4.2 日常用語中隱喻漢譯的難點
4.3 日常用語中隱語漢譯的過程
4.4 日常用語中隱喻漢譯的基本方法及原則
5. 日常用語中隱喻漢譯的方法與技巧
5.1 直譯法
5.2 意譯法
5.3 轉譯法
5.4 直譯和意譯結合法
4) 參考書目
Brodkey, Linda. Review: The Language in Metaphors. ( College English Jan, v50 pp 89-94), 1988.
Jin Di & Eugene, A. Nida. On Translation. Beijing: China Translation Publishing Company, 1984.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. Metaphors We Live by Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Nida, Eugene A. & William, Reyburn. Meaning Across Cultures, Maryknoll of N.Y. Orbis Book, 1981.
…
陳宏薇 《新實用漢譯英教程》，武漢：湖北教育出版社，1996。
陳文伯 《英語成語和漢語成語》，北京：外語教學與研究出版社，1980。
鄧炎昌、劉潤清《語言與文化》，北京：外語教學與研究出版社，1989。
張培基等《英漢翻譯教程》，上海：上海外語教育出版社，1983。
1、具有獨立性和自含性
對于一些英文讀者來說，英文摘要是他們唯一的信息源，所以英文摘要一定要強調完整性，也就是說它所提供的信息必須是完整的。
2、具有定量分析
撰寫英文摘要的過程中應該注意避免籠統的、空洞的闡述，盡量用具體的語言和清晰地思路來論述，這樣能給讀者一個全面的信息呈現。
3、具有創新性
由于東西方文化差異，西方學者在閱讀論文時會注重創新之處，所以中英文摘要不必強求一致，英文摘要需要有自己的特點和風格。
國際標準規定中“摘要”一詞定義為原文內容準確、扼要的表達，而不加以解釋和評論。各個高校對其也都有自己的相關規定，如新疆農業大學，一般要求英文摘要在200-250字符，單詞語法正確，語言流暢、精煉。內容包括目的、方法、結果、結論等4個方面，著重反映論文中的新內容、新見解，但不得加入評論。
二、非英專本科畢業論文中文摘要英譯中存在的問題
1、研究過程簡述
為了了解本校非英專本科畢業論文英文摘要所存在的問題，筆者進行了兩方面的研究。筆者對土管專業的62份問卷結果進行了數據分析，發現77%的非英專學生對英文摘要有強烈的需求；收集了土管專業的57份畢業論文英文摘要，進行詳細分析、研究，發現70%的學生借助了網上一些軟件翻譯，其中有25%的人對譯文進行了修改，僅有12%的學生基本了達到英文摘要的要求。
2、英文摘要存在的問題的分析
1）文章題目的翻譯。中國學生受到漢語思維習慣的影響，在中文題目中會用到“研究”、“初探”等詞，但是在撰寫英文摘要中，這些詞就可以不用譯出。
例如：四平市耕地保護的問題及對策分析
原譯：Analysis of Problem and Countermeasures of Farmland Protection in Si Ping City
改譯：Problem and Countermeasures of Farmland Protection in Si Ping City
2）標點符號錯誤。學生常犯的錯誤：并列成分用分號隔開；書名號沒有用斜體；中英文省略號的區別。
例如：農戶耕地流轉行為受農戶文化程度、年齡、農戶家庭勞動力資源狀況影響。
譯文：... is influenced by farmers’ degree of education，age，labor resource status.
3）用詞不當。詞性和近義詞區別分辨不清常會導致用詞不當的問題。
例如：但是由此產生的人地矛盾問題卻日趨尖銳
原譯；but the resulting contradiction between people and land ...
筆者認為“矛盾”一詞，根據詞義和用途，conflict更為貼切。
改譯：but the resulting conflict between people and land...
4）搭配不當。英語單詞的搭配紛亂復雜，許多學生的語法基礎薄弱，經常會用錯搭配導致不規范的表達。
例如：In Urumqi as an example ...
改譯：Taking Urumqi as an example...
5）中式翻譯
做翻譯時，一個普遍問題就是中式思維翻譯。如果只顧字面對應，不考慮文化差異，可能會造成簡單句泛濫，句子銜接性差。
例如：大量的農業用地轉為城市用地，給國家糧食安全問題和生態環境的保護造成了極大的壓力。
原譯：A great deal transformation of agricultural land into urban land， to the national food security problems and the protection of the ecological environment cause great pressure.
原譯文完全是根據中文逐字逐句翻譯的，且原文中的“問題”可不用譯出。
改譯：A great deal transformation ...brings great pressure to the national food security...
三、改進英文摘要質量的對策
英文摘要中存在的問題還有很多，以上幾條只是筆者在實踐過程中常見問題的簡單總結。想要提高摘要質量，筆者認為需要從以下兩個方面做出努力：
正確認識英文摘要的意義，了解英文摘要的寫作特點和規范。撰寫英文摘要時，先用中文完成結構完整、信息全面的摘要，再按照英文思維將其翻譯下來。
掌握英文摘要的翻譯技巧，加強自身翻譯能力。多注重英文摘要的寫作規范和行文特點，如用詞、句法、時態、語態等。多積累英文摘要常用詞、句型，多閱讀英文文獻資料。（作者單位：新疆農業大學外國語學院）
作者簡介：汪南（1994～），新疆農業大學外國語學院英語134班學生。
參考文獻
1、培養學生的英語閱讀、寫作能力及運用商務知識分析問題和解決問題的能力,達到學以致用的目的。
2、檢查學生對所學專業理論知識和基本技能的掌握程度,并將論文成績作為學生能否畢業的主要依據之一。
3、訓練學生搜集運用資料的技能,同時培養學生理論聯系實際,增強獨立思考問題和解決問題的能力。
二、 論文寫作要求:
1、以英文/漢語完成論文寫作。
2、字數要求不低于3000個單詞或字, 統一采用A4(210x297mm)頁面復印紙單面打印.其中上邊距2.8cm,下面距2.5cm,左邊距2.5cm,右邊距2.5cm,頁眉1.6cm頁腳1.5cm裝訂線0.5cm.字間距為標準,行間距為1.25倍行距.頁眉內統一為:用5號宋體
3、論文的內容要與本專業所要求的知識和技能相結合,要求論述者閱讀一定量的英文和中文資料,能夠對所有的資料進行合理刪減、組織和編輯,掌握論文撰寫的結構與布局。要求語言流暢,層次清晰,論點明確,論據充分。具有以下特性:
1) 科學性:觀點正確,論據充分可靠,結構合理,能反映出學生對本學科知識系統掌握的程度及其某一問題有較深理解很認識
2) 實用性:選題應該具有現實意義和學術價值,應該體現出分析問題解決問題的能力水平
3) 邏輯性:論證應該有力,層次應該分明,邏輯應該嚴密,結構應該完整合理
4) 技術性:應該具有收集整理運用材料的能力,語言表達應該清晰準確,格式應該規范
4、寫作時間安排:
1月14日:學生與導師見面選題和開題
1月15日-3月25日學生寫作,提交提綱,初稿,導師修改并將完成情況向系里匯報
3月31號前根據導師的修改意見完成第二稿交導師修改
4月7號前完成定稿并按照要求打印裝訂成冊.打印3份,交系里2份
4月8號-4月13號準備答辯,原則上采用英語答辯
2007年4月14號論文答辯,原則上采用英語答辯
5:論文成績評定:采用5級記分制,及優秀,良好,中等,及格和不及格五等.其中優秀沒,良好等次的人數分別按不高于15%,20%的比例評定.終結成績必須經指導老師學院畢業論文指導小組認定.
6:特別說明:
畢業論文寫作是嚴肅的事情.嚴禁抄襲剽竊他人論文.一經發現此次論文成績判為0分.
三、 論文選題方向:
1、商務英語教學改革的方向,途徑,課程設置等
2、商務英語教學在新形勢下的影響和意義;
3、我國貿易的現狀及其發展方向
4、商務英文翻譯技巧;
5、江西招商引資探討及其對策
6.WTO保護期過后對我國的影響;
四、 論文設計與擬定的程序:1、指導教師的幫助下,根據本指導書提供的選題范圍,從中選擇論文方向,確定題目。(注:選擇其他的題目,需與指導教師商議確定)
2、 搜尋與本人論文題目相關的資料,文獻,形成論文大綱,注意論文結構安排的合理性。
3、 論文結構:包括題目,中英文摘要和關鍵詞,目錄和正文. 詳見后面附件
附件1:
外語系英語專業(高職)畢業論文選題(商英專業)
1. 《商務英語課程設置的探討》
2. 《跨文化因素對英漢翻譯的影響》
3. 《商務英語的特點及翻譯技巧》
4. 《商務英語函電在對外貿易中的作用》
5. 《單證員在國際貿易中的地位》
6. 《商務英語函電翻譯技巧》
7. 《商務談判中英語的重要性》
8. 《淺談出口結匯風險的防范》
9. 《中國退稅制度的改革及其影響》
10. 《商標名稱的翻譯與策略》
11. 《外貿企業信用風險管理與控制》
12. 《2007年外資銀行在我國本土注冊探討》
13. 《我國利用國際貸款/國際援助現狀分析》
14. 《WTO與我國反傾銷探討》
15. 《我國對外直接投資之現狀》
16. 《內陸地區對外貿易發展策略研究》
17. 《中印兩國兩國對外貿易戰略分析》
18. 《人民幣升值對我國出口貿易的影響》
19. 《淺談商務英語寫作時避免修飾語錯位的方法》
20. 《商務函電翻譯的用詞技巧》
21. 《外商直接在華投資探討》
22. 《社會文化遷移對中國式英語的影響》
23. 《我國外貿出口品牌戰略的實施與研究》
24. 《商務英語專業口語課程教學探討》
25. 《入世對我國農產品貿易的影響與對策研究》
26. 《應對經濟全球化,加快我國企業跨國經營》
27. 《英語寫作中常見中式英語分析》
28. 《入世商務英語寫作的研究》
29. 《制單工作在國際結算中的地位》
30. 《關稅壁壘與非關稅壁壘探討》
31. 《淺談實質利益談判法》
32. 《國際電子商務發展面臨的新問題》
33. 《商務英語寫作中的錯誤與商務英語寫作教學之間的關系》
34. 《清算所在期貨市場上的地位》
35. 《跨國公司在華擴張模式透析》
36. 《漢譯英中遇到新詞語的譯法問題》
37. 英漢互譯中詞義的不對應(文化意義、風格意義、修辭意義等)
38. 我國市場經濟國家地位與反傾銷
39. 如何防范信用證詐騙
40. 我國中小企業開拓國際市場之探討
41. "10+1"自由貿易區未來前景展望
42. 漢語中新詞匯的翻譯技巧
43. 商務英語的特征與翻譯
44. 珠江三角洲外貿現狀及存在的問題
45. 南昌現利用外資縱談
46. 廣州/深圳等地區三資企業結構分析
47. 淺談廣州等地區外貿企業的困境與出路
48. 淺談廣州等地區出口產品結構的市場分布
49. 商務英語專業畢業生就業崗位之探討
50. 單證員跟單員等資格證書現狀思考
51. 禮儀在商務談判中的作用
52. 跨國公司的本土化經營戰略及其實施
53. 中國在亞洲區域合作中的地位和作用
54. 延長我國加工貿易國內價值鏈問題探析
55. 中國貿易的現狀和前景
56. 我國西部地區引進外資問題研究
57. 人民幣業務對外開放之探討
58. 淺談涉外合同英語特色
59. 海外投資與出口貿易的相互關系
60. 文化和地理因素對外商在中國直接投資的影響
61. 綠色壁壘對關稅壁壘的替代效應研究
62. 新貿易保護主義的政策調整與我國貿易發展
63. 貿易磨檫及其解決機制研究
64. UCP600-信用證領域的新規則探討
65. 論<<聯合國國際貨物銷售合同公約>>的適用范圍及總則
66. 淺談<<聯合國國際貨物銷售合同公約>>下賣方的知識產權擔保義務
67. 我國紡織業出口競爭秩序現狀分析與對策探討
68. 淺談來料加工與進料加工的利弊
69. 經紀傭金商或場內經紀人在期貨交易中的地位
70. 淺談商檢證書在國際貿易中的作用
附件2 開題報告格式
商務學院
高職畢業設計(論文)開題報告
題目名稱: 中國家庭企業管理創新研究
題目性質: 研究論文
學生姓名: XXX
專 業: 工商管理
學 院: XXXX
年 級: 04級
指導教師: XXX
一、 選題背景
隨著我國經濟的高速發展,以家族企業為主的民營企業也得到了快速發展和壯大,在國民經濟中發揮了越來越重要的作用。但是,與此同時,我國的家族企業也暴露出越來越多的問題,如家長式的管理方法、企業基礎管理制度不健全和后續發展無力等諸多問題。這些問題不僅制約著我國家族企業的發展壯大,而且嚴重影響到我國經濟的健康快速的發展,因此,研究我國現階段家族企業如何進行管理創新,以最大限度地調動家族企業員工的積極性,從而實現家族企業生產要素優化配置,促進家族企業持續發展已顯得尤為緊迫。
二、研究的基本內容,擬解決的主要問題、研究步驟、方法
本文從我國家族企業的實際情況出發,以管理創新的理論為指導,對我國家族企業如何進行行之有效的管理創新進行深入地研究。首先評述了國內外學者對家族企業管管理創新含義的不同看法,提出了家族企業管理創新的含義、構成要素及內在機理,認為我國家族企業進行管理創新的有效性在于有利于更好地實現家族企業的經營目標,有利于充公調動企業員工尤其非家族成員的積極性和創造性。
其次,分析了我國現階段家族企業管理創新的現狀及存在的問題,指出了我國家族企業管理模式存在諸多不足,如在管理創新過程中仍然存在家長式決策、缺乏戰略管理和基礎薄弱等諸多問題,所有這些在客觀上要求創建一種新的管理模式以促進家族企業健康快速發展。
再次,要創建一種適合我國家族企業實情的管理模式,就必須全面準確地把握好我國家族企業所面臨的外部環境。因此,本文指出了我國家族企業開展管理創新面臨著外部環境的特殊性和復雜性。
三、研究工作進度
1、教師報題(2006.11.1----11.15)
2、網上公布畢業設計題目和指導教師(2006.11.20)
3、學生選題(2006.11.20---12. 15)
4、落實任務(學生與導師見面,交電子郵箱地址)(2006.12. 1---12. 25)
5、學生上交開題報告(紙字稿)(2006.12.25----2007.1.15)
6、中期論文檢查(交電子稿) (2007.4月1日前)
7、論文上交(紙字稿附電子稿)(2007.4.15----2007.5.1)
8、07屆畢業設計答辯(評定學生成績)(2007.6月初)
9、07屆優秀論文評定(2007.6.15)
10、07屆優秀論文匯報會(2007.6下旬)
四、主要參考文獻
[1]顧文靜,溫州民營企業實行委托---制的障礙分析,經濟管理。2002.2
[2]甘德安,中國家族企業研究,中國社會科學出版社,2002年版
［中圖分類號］G642.4 ［文獻標識碼］A ［文章編號］1009－5349（2012）02－0195－02
引言
根據開放教育本科英語（教育方向）教學計劃的規定，學員在基本修完本專業規定的必修課和選修課后，進入以撰寫畢業論文為主的集中實踐環節。教學實踐設計環節即畢業論文設計是開放教育本科英語專業教育方向的一個極為重要的環節。在本文中，筆者基于近五年的畢業論文指導實踐基礎，闡述了開放教育英語本科畢業論文的特點，分析了畢業論文寫作中存在的問題和不足之處，并在此基礎上提出了相應的對策與建議。
一、開放教育本科英語專業畢業論文的特點
開放教育本科英語教育專業學員所寫的畢業論文除了學術性（scholarly）、創新性（original）、規范性（formal）這幾個畢業論文的基本特征外，還應體現英語教育的職業性（professional）和過程性。
（一）畢業論文的設計應體現理論聯系教育實踐原則
所謂“學有所用”，學員畢業論文的選題要結合自己的課堂教學實踐，真正解決本人在教學實踐中遇到的客觀存在的問題。畢業論文指導教師應就“教學行為研究”的基本要求和原則面向全體學員以講座或課程的形式進行指導。整篇畢業論文至少要體現有四次教學研究記錄或教學日記；要有一次課堂教學的錄像或錄音；要有原始調查問卷，或座談的錄音等，以保證教育教學這一職業性的凸顯。
（二）畢業論文的設計應該體現過程性原則
整個畢業論文設計必須經過問題分析、方案設計、項目實施、項目評估和項目報告幾個階段。學員的研究必須針對其課堂中確確實實反映出的問題，方案的設計必須符合要求，實施階段必須嚴格監控，保證有一個月的實施時間，指導教師對學生的研究要如實評估，項目報告，亦即論文必須符合論文的寫作規范，要體現指導過程。整個設計環節由5個環節組成：
1.項目啟動：指導教師可采用集體或分散等指導方式，介紹研究原則和研究方法，布置研究任務；
2.問題分析和方案設計：學員分析自己課堂教學中反映出的問題，設計問題解決方案；
3.項目實施：學員通過課堂教學具體實施方案；
4.項目評估：學員運用評估手段和方法，對項目的事實情況及結果進行評估；
5.項目報告：學員根據論文寫作規范，用英文寫出正文4000詞左右的項目報告，同時提供項目實施過程中的所有原始材料。
在整個論文的寫作過程中，項目啟動是整個論文寫作的理論基礎；問題分析和方案設計確定論文研究方向；項目實施是論文實用價值體現的關鍵環節；項目評估是對論文學術價值的提煉；項目報告是對整個寫作痕跡的保留。這五個環節環環相扣，缺一不可，相輔相成，層層遞進。
二、撰寫開放教育本科英語專業畢業論文存在的問題及其對策
畢業論文寫作對于開放教育本科英語專業的學員來說非常具有挑戰性，因為除了完成一般畢業論文所要完成的各個環節以外，英語專業的學生還需用英文進行畢業論文的寫作。要想順利完成英語專業畢業論文設計,學員要從論文的選題、時間安排及寫作心態三方面同步著手。
（一）選題問題
開放教育學員本身寫作水平不高（大多學員學歷為中專），面對論文選題往往要么望而卻步，要么求大求空，無法駕馭論文寫作。要解決畢業論文選題難這個問題，在具體的畢業論文指導實踐中，指導教師則需著力推進“兩個兼容”原則。該原則有利于學員對自己的教學實踐進行反思，并學以致用。
1.原則之一：教學實踐和學術研究兼容。由于開放教育本科英語專業的學員大多數是中小學一線教師，有著相當豐富的教學經驗，駕馭本專業與自己工作實踐聯系緊密的論文選題會相對來說容易得多。其次，學員對自己多年來的教學實踐進行反思和思考，整理和提煉教學心得，再用于指導自己的教學實踐，這樣的論文很有實踐性和指導性。最后要注意在強調聯系教育實踐的同時，也不能輕視了畢業論文的規范性，學員通過英文寫作鍛煉了英文寫作技巧，同時也對論文寫作的規范要求進行了寫作實踐。
2.原則之二：個人特長和實際情況兼容。學員進行畢業論文的選題時還要考慮自己的特長、綜合知識水平、學術科研能力和客觀條件。學員最好選擇自身擅長并且有一定興趣的題目。擅長能表現出學員對該論題有較深的認識思考及一定的實踐經驗，能降低寫作難度，更充分地發揮個人的主觀能動性，從而做到素材充實，個人見解深刻，針對性強。指導老師可幫助學生對歷年的論文題目進行歸類，然后就每一類給出具體實例，讓學員親身體驗，和學員共同探討，尋找自己感興趣、熟悉或是能駕馭的題目。歷年論文題目基本可劃分為教學實踐經驗總結、學生心理研究、學科思想、學生非智力因素等方面。
（二）時間問題
由于開放教育本科英語專業學員大多為成人或在職中小學英語教師，工作負擔沉重，家庭生活壓力大，在完成工作任務和照顧好家庭之余用于論文寫作的時間就非常有限，因此時間的合理安排和使用是畢業論文按期按質完成的重要保障。畢業論文的時間安排表如下：
從上表可以看出，在教學計劃中留出用于畢業論文寫作的時間本身就非常有限，且由于是安排在最后一個學期，面臨畢業，論文已無延期上交的可能性，因學員自身不夠重視或工作忙等原因最后只能選擇放棄論文答辯的現象屢見不鮮。為改變這一無論是學員還是指導教師都不愿意看到的局面，筆者建議首先學員應當重視畢業論文的寫作，畢竟三年所學，畢于所寫。學員應當處理好學業與工作的關系，充分、高效地使用業余時間進行論文方案的實施及撰寫，對寫作過程中的困難要有充分的思想準備，耐得住寂寞，忍得下艱苦。其次，作為指導教師則應確實把握好論文寫作的每個環節，運用E-Mail、手機等現代化聯系方式，或告知學生可進行雙向語音或視頻聯絡的網址（例如雅虎通、QQ、MSN等）充分與學員進行有效溝通，指導到位，引導學員逐段完成論文，漸入佳境。按時間安排逐項完成各項寫作任務還有賴于指導教師對學員的階段性檢查，定期檢查學生的工作進度和質量。
（三）心態問題
學員積極的寫作心態，是畢業論文順利完成的重要保障。積極心態的創立離不開指導教師的培養和學員自身養成。
1.指導教師要為學員設置成功目標。在長達半年的畢業論文寫作過程中，指導教師在學員因為這樣或那樣的困難導致論文寫不下去時,應不厭其煩地進行鼓勵。為了使畢業論文順利完成這一遠景目標變得不那么遙不可及，指導教師可以對遠景目標進行分解，放在每一個寫作階段，逐一完成，使得遠景目標的實現具備較強的可操作性。
2.學員對自己的論文寫作應持積極心態。積極心態是一種對任何人、任何情況或任何環境所把持的正確、誠懇而且有建設性，同時也不違背法律、道德和人類權利的思想、行為或反映。積極心態有利于畢業論文的順利完成。下圖是柳州市廣播電視大學2005-2011年部分畢業生畢業論文心理狀況調查表，可以反映出由于持不同心態的畢業生參加畢業論文寫作會產生的不同結果。
柳州市廣播電視大學2005-2011年部分畢業生畢業論文心理狀況調查表
上表顯示的狀況是不能令人放心的，這樣的心態必然會引發教學、管理等方面的一系列問題。混學、浮學現象嚴重，缺勤、論文抄襲、拼湊等現象屢禁不絕。這些與上述消極心態有直接的關系。在艱辛的畢業論文創作過程中，學員應抱積極心態，把自己遇到的種種失敗看成人生經歷的寶貴財富。不論怎樣，堅持下來，就是最大的勝利。在近五年的指導畢業論文的實踐中，筆者發現具有積極心態的學員寫作目標明確，動機強，遇到寫作困難時善于動腦筋、想辦法，寫作進展速度快。而具有消極心態的學員在進行畢業論文的創作時，往往遇難而退；面對種種寫作困難采取逃避或是蒙混過關的辦法，其結果往往是論文不能按時上交，延期畢業。
三、結束語
綜上所述，堅持“兩個兼容”原則指導學員選題，合理安排論文撰寫時間，幫助學生建立積極的撰寫心態，能較好地體現電大開放教育培養“實用性、應用性”人才的辦學宗旨，可以在一定程度上消除當前畢業論文寫作的尷尬狀況。畢業論文是一個極其艱辛的實施過程，只要學員合理安排好論文寫作時間，保持積極的寫作心態就能順利完成畢業論文的寫作，參加論文答辯，達到個人的學術研究高峰。
【參考文獻】
[1]黃芬香.開放教育文科類畢業論文評價模式的構建[J].中國遠程教育,2006(4):34-38.
[2]施小平.試論高校畢業論文(設計)的全面質量管理[J].高教探索,2006(4):62-64.
[3]曹文榮.遠程教育畢業論文指導方法研究――基于上海電大畢業論文指導的實踐[J].研究與交流,2007(5):11-13.
[4]王正東.流程型開放教育畢業論文(設計)追蹤管理模式[J].廣播電視大學學報:哲學社會科學版,2006,(3):125-127.宋立平.畢業論文寫作指導[M].保定:河北大學出版社,2003.12.
[5]杜祥培,尹躍妮,歐陽中萬.提高本科畢業論文(設計)質量的探討[J].當代教育論壇,2003(9):75-77.
[6]司景萍,高志鷹.提高畢業設計質量的措施探討[J].高等教育研究,2010(3):43-46.
[7]顧冀梅.關于英語專業本科畢業論文課程改革的思考[J].教育與職業,2009(12):164-165.
[8]鄭秀戀.英語專業本科畢業論文選題的問題及對策[J].浙江理工大學學報,2009(3):436-439.
原因分析以上分析表明學生畢業論文在選題、內容與結構、文獻資料以及實踐性論文方面都存在或多或少，或大或小的毛病，這其中有主觀原因，也有客觀原因。1.客觀原因客觀原因主要有以下幾點：首先，新建本科院校大多從專科院校升格而來，?？平逃越虒W為主要職能，科研對教師來說只是“副業”[1]77，本科教育教師除了教學外，還有科研要求。但是新建本科院校辦學時間都比較短，科研氛圍積淀不足，整體師資在科研方面比較薄弱，很難為學生提供有效的指導。其次，新建本科院校的生源質量相對985、211老牌本科院校低，學生一進來底子就比較薄，直接造成學生語言基本功薄弱，無法撰寫表達流暢、語言規范并有一定質量的論文。第三，新建地方本科院校大多面臨辦學經費不足，資金來源有限，又要進行大量的基礎設施建設，圖書資料建設相對滯后，實踐教學流于形式，實踐項目難以實質跟上，這在很大程度上影響畢業論文的質量及實踐性論文的開展。第四，教學改革沒有跟上，語言課還是按照老套的教學方式，重記憶與操練，輕分析和思辯，缺乏對學生邏輯思維和分析判斷能力的培養和訓練。因此，學生就缺乏發現問題、提出問題和解決問題的能力。2.主觀原因主觀原因主要涉及學生與教師兩個層面：第一，學生對畢業論文重視不夠，認識不足，態度不認真，存在畏難情緒、依賴心理。發現不少學生對指導教師提出的修改意見，不認真查閱資料，仔細修改，而是一次又一次更改選題，以為只要簡單“好過”就行。有些學生想走“捷徑”，直接到網上尋找“現成”的材料，東拼西湊、簡單粘貼，把艱巨的修改任務交給導師。有些學生將畢業論文“束之高閣”，一拖再拖，直到要畢業了都還交不了差。其次，由于有些院校對畢業論文只重視結果管理，忽視過程管理，甚至疏于管理，調查中發現有些院系沒有設立專人負責畢業論文管理，有些責任心不強的指導教師，對所指導的學生要么放任自流，要么敷衍了事，要么流于形式，沒有給學生提供真正的指導。
對策與建議
